Investigation of the underlying mechanism of Buyang Huanwu decoction in ischemic stroke by integrating systems pharmacology-proteomics and in vivo experiments

Buyang Huanwu Decoction (BHD) has been effective in treating ischemic stroke (IS). However, its mechanism of action remains unclear. The study intended to explore the potential mechanism of BHD against IS using systems pharmacology, proteomics, and animal experiments. The active components of BHD were identified from UPLC-Q-TOF-MS and literature mining. Systems pharmacology and proteomics were employed to investigate the underlying mechanism of BHD against IS. The AutoDock tool was used for molecular docking. A middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model rat was utilized to explore the therapeutic benefits of BHD. The rats were divided into sham, model, BHD (5, 10, 20 g/kg, ig) groups. The neurological scores, pathological section characteristics, brain infarct volumes, inflammatory cytokines, and signaling pathways were investigated in vivo experiments. The results of systems pharmacology showed that 13 active compounds and 112 common targets were screened in BHD. The docking results suggested that the active compounds in BHD had a high affinity for the key targets. In vivo experiments demonstrated that BHD exhibited neuroprotective benefits by lowering the neurological score, the volume of the cerebral infarct, the release of inflammatory cytokines, and reducing neuroinflammatory damage in MCAO rats. Furthermore, BHD decreased TNF-α and CD38 levels while increasing ATP2B2, PDE1A, CaMK4, p-PI3K, and p-AKT. Combined with systems pharmacology and proteomic studies, we confirmed that PI3K-Akt and calcium signaling pathways are the key mechanisms for BHD against IS. Furthermore, this study demonstrated the feasibility of combining proteomics with systems pharmacology to study the mechanism of herbal medicine.

Psoralen and Isopsoralen, Estrogen Natural Products from , Induced Cholestasis via Activation of ERK1/2

With the increasing use of oral contraceptives and estrogen replacement therapy, the incidence of estrogen-induced cholestasis (EC) has tended to rise. Psoralen (P) and isopsoralen (IP) are the major bioactive components in Psoraleae Fructus, and their estrogen-like activities have already been recognized. Recent studies have also reported that ERK1/2 plays a critical role in EC in mice. This study aimed to investigate whether P and IP induce EC and reveal specific mechanisms. It was found that P and IP increased the expression of esr1, cyp19a1b and the levels of E2 and VTG at 80 μM in zebrafish larvae. Exemestane (Exe), an aromatase antagonist, blocked estrogen-like activities of P and IP. At the same time, P and IP induced cholestatic hepatotoxicity in zebrafish larvae with increasing liver fluorescence areas and bile flow inhibition rates. Further mechanistic analysis revealed that P and IP significantly decreased the expression of bile acids (BAs) synthesis genes cyp7a1 and cyp8b1, BAs transport genes abcb11b and slc10a1, and BAs receptor genes nr1h4 and nr0b2a. In addition, P and IP caused EC by increasing the level of phosphorylation of ERK1/2. The ERK1/2 antagonists GDC0994 and Exe both showed significant rescue effects in terms of cholestatic liver injury. In conclusion, we comprehensively studied the specific mechanisms of P- and IP-induced EC and speculated that ERK1/2 may represent an important therapeutic target for EC induced by phytoestrogens.

Dingkun Pill modulate ovarian function in chemotherapy-induced premature ovarian insufficiency mice by regulating PTEN/PI3K/AKT/FOXO3a signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dingkun Pill (DKP) is a traditional Chinese medicine that has been shown to have beneficial effects on reproductive function. However, the specific mechanism underlying its effect on POI is not well understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effect of different doses of Dingkun Pill on ovarian function in cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) mice and to explore its molecular mechanism through PTEN/PI3K/AKT/FOXO3a signaling pathway. This study will provide valuable insights into the potential clinical application of Dingkun Pill for the treatment of POI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty female ICR mice were randomly divided into normal control (NC) group, model control (MC) group, and Dingkun Pill low, medium, high dose (DKP-L, M, H) groups. Mice were injected with CTX to construct the POI model. Mice in the DKP-L, M, and H groups were given 0.9 g/kg, 1.8 g/kg, and 3.6 g/kg of Dingkun Pill suspension for 21 days, respectively. Mice in the NC and MC groups were given the same amount of normal saline by gavage. Changes in body weight, estrous cycle and gonadal index were observed in each group of mice. Serum levels of FSH, LH, E2 and AMH were detected by ELISA. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining observed the changes of ovarian pathological morphology and follicle counts at all levels. qRT-PCR was used to measure the levels of the PTEN and FOXO3a genes in ovarian tissue. The expression of PTEN/PI3K/AKT/FOXO3a signaling pathway related proteins were detected by Western-blot and immunohistochemistry(IHC).

RESULTS

In POI mice, Dingkun Pill increased body weight, promoted the recovery of estrous cycle, increased ovarian index, and improved pathological morphology of the ovaries. The FSH level decreased in the medium dose group (P < 0.05), the LH level reduced significantly in the medium and high dose groups (P < 0.01), and the E2 level in the high dose group increased (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference in AMH levels across all dose groups. The number of growing follicles improved at all levels in the low and medium dose groups, but declined significantly in the high dose group. However, the number of corpus luteum increased significantly in the high dose group (P < 0.001), and the atretic follicles in the three dose groups decreased. Results from qRT-PCR, Western-blot and IHC showed that the moderate dose of Dingkun Pill suppressed the levels of the p-PI3K and p-AKT proteins by upregulating the expression of PTEN in the ovarian tissues of POI mice, thereby inhibiting the expression of the key protein p-FOXO3a. However, the inhibitory effect of the higher dose may be less than that of the lower and intermediate dose groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The Dingkun Pill modulated hormonal levels, promoted follicle growth and induced ovulation in mice with CTX-induced POI, with better results in the low and moderate dose groups. Its mechanism may be related to the regulation of the PTEN/PI3K/AKT/FOXO3a signaling pathway.

The phytoestrogenic potential of flavonoid glycosides from Selaginella moellendorffii via ERα-dependent signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Selaginella moellendorffii (SM) has been applied as an ethnic drug to treat conditions such as osteoporosis, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, and chronic inflammation. It is known to be rich in flavonoids, including apigenin glycosides and unique elements of bioflavonoids.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate estrogen-like constituents of SM and the possible mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We identified the main components in liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The estrogenic effects were examined using a recombinant yeast screening assay, an E-screen cell proliferation assay, and an in vivo uterotrophic assay.

RESULTS

Flavonoid glycosides extract, some flavonoid glycosides, and apigenin showed estrogen agonistic activity in the yeast screening assay. They also induced cell proliferation in estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) cells but not in estrogen receptor-negative (ER-) cells. Consistently, the protein expression of ERα, phosphorylation protein kinase B (p-AKT), phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K), phosphorylation mammalian target of rapamycin (p-mTOR), phosphorylation 38,000-Da protein (p-P38), and phosphorylation extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 (p-ERK1/2) elevated following treatment with flavonoid glycoside extract (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05). These effects could be blocked by ER antagonist or ERα antagonist but not be blocked by ERβ antagonist. In vivo assay, flavonoid glycoside extract could significantly increase body weight, serum estradiol level, uterine wet weight, alter uterine morphology, and promote ERα protein expression (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

ERα induction via mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways might be the possible mechanism underlying the phytoestrogen effect of SM, and the flavonoid glycosides might be the critical estrogenic constituents.

Estrogenic flavonoids and their molecular mechanisms of action

Flavonoids are a major group of phytoestrogens associated with physiological effects, and ecological and social impacts. Although the estrogenic activity of flavonoids was reported by researchers in the fields of medical, environmental and food studies, their molecular mechanisms of action have not been comprehensively reviewed. The estrogenic activity of the respective classes of flavonoids, anthocyanidins/anthocyanins, 2-arylbenzofurans/3-arylcoumarins/α-methyldeoxybenzoins, aurones/chalcones/dihydrochalcones, coumaronochromones, coumestans, flavans/flavan-3-ols/flavan-4-ols, flavanones/dihydroflavonols, flavones/flavonols, homoisoflavonoids, isoflavans, isoflavanones, isoflavenes, isoflavones, neoflavonoids, oligoflavonoids, pterocarpans/pterocarpenes, and rotenone/rotenoids, was summarized through a comprehensive literature search, and their structure-activity relationship, biological activities, signaling pathways, and applications were discussed. Although the respective classes of flavonoids contained at least one chemical mimicking estrogen, the mechanisms varied, such as those with estrogenic, anti-estrogenic, non-estrogenic, and biphasic activities, and additional activities through crosstalk/bypassing, which exert biological activities through cell signaling pathways. Such mechanistic variations of estrogen action are not limited to flavonoids and are observed among other broad categories of chemicals, thus this group of chemicals can be termed as the "estrogenome". This review article focuses on the connection of estrogen action mainly between the outer and the inner environments, which represent variations of chemicals and biological activities/signaling pathways, respectively, and form the basis to understand their applications. The applications of chemicals will markedly progress due to emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence for precision medicine, which is also true of the study of the estrogenome including estrogenic flavonoids.

Treatment of Cesarean Scar Pregnancy with Traditional Chinese Medicine and Warming Moxibustion

We aimed to report the clinical characteristics of cesarean scar pregnancy (CSP), improve the understanding of uterine scar pregnancy, and assess the outcomes of our treatment strategy for CSP. We present 30 patients with CSP diagnosed by transvaginal ultrasonography. Patients received B ultrasound-guided lauromacrogol injection, followed by evacuation under B ultrasound guidance, and intrauterine balloon compression for hemostasis. Postoperatively, all patients received Bushenquyu decoction and warming moxibustion. All patients showed fast recovery and preserved fertility. The combination of lauromacrogol injection and suction curettage under hysteroscopic guidance is an effective conservative treatment for CSP that can help preserve the reproductive function. Postoperative traditional Chinese medicine and warming moxibustion may reduce the risk of ectopic pregnancy and increase the rate of subsequent intrauterine pregnancy.

Kaempferol-induced GPER upregulation attenuates atherosclerosis via the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 pathway

CONTEXT

The effect of kaempferol, a regulator of oestrogen receptors, on atherosclerosis (AS) and the underlying mechanism is elusive.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effect and mechanism of kaempferol on AS.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

In vivo, C57BL/6 and apolipoprotein E (APOE)^-/- mice were randomly categorized into six groups (C57BL/6: control, ovariectomy (OVX), high-fat diet (HFD); APOE^-/-: OVX-HFD, OVX-HFD + kaempferol (50 mg/kg) and OVX-HFD + kaempferol (100 mg/kg) and administered with kaempferol for 16 weeks, intragastrically. Oil-Red and haematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining were employed to examine the effect of kaempferol. In vitro, human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) were pre-treated with or without kaempferol (5, 10 or 20 μM), followed by administration with kaempferol and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) (200 μg/mL). The effect of kaempferol was evaluated using flow cytometry, and TdT-mediated dUTP Nick-End Labelling (TUNEL).

RESULTS

In vivo, kaempferol (50 and 100 mg/kg) normalized the morphology of blood vessels and lipid levels and suppressed inflammation and apoptosis. It also activated the G protein-coupled oestrogen receptor (GPER) and PI3K/AKT/nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathways. In vitro, ox-LDL (200 μg/mL) reduced the cell viability to 50% (IC₅₀). Kaempferol (5, 10 or 20 μM) induced-GPER activation increased cell viability to nearly 10%, 19.8%, 30%, and the decreased cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation (16.7%, 25.6%, 31.1%), respectively, consequently attenuating postmenopausal AS. However, the protective effects of kaempferol were blocked through co-treatment with si-GPER.

CONCLUSIONS

The beneficial effects of kaempferol against postmenopausal AS are associated with the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 pathways, mediated by the activation of GPER.

Efficacy and Safety of Acupuncture Vs. Hormone Therapy for Menopausal Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Menopausal syndrome (MPS) is a common gynecological disorder around the time of menopause, and hormone therapy (HT) is the first-line treatment for it. However, HT is prone to cause adverse reactions in MPS patients treated with HT. Acupuncture is a popular non-pharmaceutical therapy for MPS, but the differences in the efficacy and safety between acupuncture and HT remain unclear. The purpose of this evidence-based study is to address this issue. Five databases were searched for potentially eligible RCTs. All RCTs comparing acupuncture with HT in the treatment of MPS were included in this study. The clinical effective rate was the primary outcome. Kupperman index, serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E[Formula: see text], and side effects were the secondary outcomes. A total of 15 RCTs recruiting 1376 MPS patients were included. Results of meta-analysis showed that compared with HT, acupuncture significantly improved clinical effective rate (RR = 1.09, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.16, [Formula: see text] = 0.005), decreased the Kupperman index (WMD = -2.55, 95% CI = -2.93 to -2.17, [Formula: see text] < 0.00001) and the incidence of side effects (RR = 0.14, 95% CI = 0.06-0.32, [Formula: see text] < 0.00001). There were no statistically significant differences in serum FSH (WMD = -1.36, 95% CI = -3.25-0.53, [Formula: see text] = 0.16), E₂(WMD = -1.11, 95% CI = -2.59-0.37, [Formula: see text] = 0.14), or LH (WMD = -1.87, 95% CI = -4.58-0.83, [Formula: see text] = 0.17) between the acupuncture and HT groups. Based on the current evidence, manual acupuncture is safer and more effective than HT and is recommended for the treatment of MPS, but the evidence for the efficacy of other types of acupuncture is inconclusive.

Sex-tailored pharmacology and COVID-19: Next steps towards appropriateness and health equity

Making gender bias visible allows to fill the gaps in knowledge and understand health records and risks of women and men. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has shown a clear gender difference in health outcomes. The more severe symptoms and higher mortality in men as compared to women are likely due to sex and age differences in immune responses. Age-associated decline in sex steroid hormone levels may mediate proinflammatory reactions in older adults, thereby increasing their risk of adverse outcomes, whereas sex hormones and/or sex hormone receptor modulators may attenuate the inflammatory response and provide benefit to COVID-19 patients. While multiple pharmacological options including anticoagulants, glucocorticoids, antivirals, anti-inflammatory agents and traditional Chinese medicine preparations have been tested to treat COVID-19 patients with varied levels of evidence in terms of efficacy and safety, information on sex-targeted treatment strategies is currently limited. Women may have more benefit from COVID-19 vaccines than men, despite the occurrence of more frequent adverse effects, and long-term safety data with newly developed vectors are eagerly awaited. The prevalent inclusion of men in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) with subsequent extrapolation of results to women needs to be addressed, as reinforcing sex-neutral claims into COVID-19 research may insidiously lead to increased inequities in health care. The huge worldwide effort with over 3000 ongoing RCTs of pharmacological agents should focus on improving knowledge on sex, gender and age as pillars of individual variation in drug responses and enforce appropriateness.

Nutritional implications of ginger: chemistry, biological activities and signaling pathways

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) has been used as a food, spice, supplement and flavoring agent and in traditional medicines due to its beneficial characteristics such as pungency, aroma, nutrients and pharmacological activity. Ginger and ginger extracts were reported to have numerous effects, such as those on diabetes and metabolic syndrome, cholesterol levels and lipid metabolism, and inflammation, revealed by epidemiological studies. To understand the beneficial characteristics of ginger, especially its physiological and pharmacological activities at the molecular level, the biological effects of ginger constituents, such as monoterpenes (cineole, citral, limonene and α/β-pinenes), sesquiterpenes (β-elemene, farnesene and zerumbone), phenolics (gingerols, [6]-shogaol, [6]-paradol and zingerone) and diarylheptanoids (curcumin), and the associated signaling pathways are summarized. Ginger constituents are involved in biological activities, such as apoptosis, cell cycle/DNA damage, chromatin/epigenetic regulation, cytoskeletal regulation and adhesion, immunology and inflammation, and neuroscience, and exert their effects through specific signaling pathways associated with cell functions/mechanisms such as autophagy, cellular metabolism, mitogen-activated protein kinase and other signaling, and development/differentiation. Estrogens, such as phytoestrogens, are one of the most important bioactive materials in nature, and the molecular mechanisms of estrogen actions and the assays to detect them have been discussed. The molecular mechanisms of estrogen actions induced by ginger constituents and related applications, such as the chemoprevention of cancers, and the improvement of menopausal syndromes, osteoporosis, endometriosis, prostatic hyperplasia, polycystic ovary syndrome and Alzheimer's disease, were summarized by a comprehensive search of references to understand more about their health benefits and associated health risks.

Traditional Chinese medicine Dingkun Pill facilitates uterine receptivity for implantation in mice†

Dingkun Pill (DK) is one of the representative traditional Chinese medicines, which has been used in the treatment of gynecological diseases for hundreds of years. Accumulative observations and evidence have shown the beneficial effects of DK, including enhancing the function of hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. However, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. In this study, the effects of DK on uterine receptivity and implantation were explored by a series of studies with different mouse models. The results showed that DK can advance the time of implantation by influencing the expression of estrogen target genes to facilitate embryo implantation. DK was efficient to activate embryo implantation at the presence of suboptimal estrogen in delayed implantation mouse model. Our further study revealed that the improvement of DK on receptivity establishment is attributed to the differential regulation of DK on implantation-associated genes. This study provides previously unappreciated molecular mechanism of DK in embryo implantation and benefits the potential clinical application of DK in human reproduction improvement.

Effect of liquiritin on neuroendocrine-immune network in menopausal rat model

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of liquiritin on neuroendocrine-immune network in menopausal rat model.

METHODS

Liquiritin groups were respectively given liquiritin suspension at the dose of 80, 40, and 20 mg/kg, once a day for continuous 30 days after the removal of bilateral ovaries to induce the menopausal rat model. Behavioral experiments were conducted and the organs were weighed for the viscera index. The content of estradiol (E₂ ) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the serum and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) in hypothalamus were assayed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay kits. Morphological changes of uterus and adrenal gland were observed by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and estrogen receptor (ER) expression of uterus and spleen were determined by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

For the nervous system, liquiritin relieved menopausal depression and up-regulated the levels of 5-HT and NE in hypothalamus; for the endocrine system, it raised the concentrations of E₂ and FSH in serum, relieved the histological changes of uterus and adrenal gland and increased the expression of ER in uterus; for the immune system, it increased the thymus index and the expression of ER in spleen.

CONCLUSIONS

Liquiritin improved menopausal syndrome in multiple ways by affecting the neuro-endocrine-immune network.

Estrogenic Activity of Coffee Constituents

Here, the constituents of coffee with estrogenic activity are summarized by a comprehensive literature search, and their mechanisms of action for their physiological effects are discussed at the molecular and cellular levels. The estrogenic activity of coffee constituents, such as acids, caramelized products, carbohydrates, lignin, minerals, nitrogenous compounds, oil (lipids), and others, such as volatile compounds, was first evaluated by activity assays, such as animal tests, cell assay, ligand-binding assay, protein assay, reporter-gene assay, transcription assay, and yeast two-hybrid assay. Second, the health benefits associated with the estrogenic coffee constituents, such as bone protection, cancer treatment/prevention, cardioprotection, neuroprotection, and the improvement of menopausal syndromes, were summarized, including their potential therapeutic/clinical applications. Inconsistent results regarding mixed estrogenic/anti-estrogenic/non-estrogenic or biphasic activity, and unbeneficial effects associated with the constituents, such as endocrine disruption, increase the complexity of the effects of estrogenic coffee constituents. However, as the increase of the knowledge about estrogenic cell signaling, such as the types of specific signaling pathways, selective modulations of cell signaling, signal crosstalk, and intercellular/intracellular networks, pathway-based assessment will become a more realistic means in the future to more reliably evaluate the beneficial applications of estrogenic coffee constituents.

The Role of Chinese Medicine in Health Maintenance and Disease Prevention: Application of Constitution Theory

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has guided health maintenance and disease treatment for thousands of years and has been widely used in many countries around the world. TCM regards each individual as unique so all corresponding therapeutic and preventive approaches in TCM are personalized. Personalized medicine, also referred to as precision medicine, is an emerging medical paradigm that points toward a new direction for future medical development. TCM constitution studies the holistic body condition, which is affected by both inborn and acquired factors. Body constitution lays the foundation for disease diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Different constitution types predispose individuals to different disease susceptibilities. Examining an individual's unique body constitution can promote effective health management and benefit the application of personalized medicine significantly. This review will introduce and discuss the application of the TCM constitution for health maintenance and disease prevention. In last decade, a number of modern techniques have been employed in the constitution research to evaluate the health status of individuals. The TCM constitution reflects the current status and future trends of human health in four aspects, i.e., individual differences, life processes, psychological condition and adaptability to natural and social environments. This TCM constitution theory has already been applied in the Chinese public health management at different levels with promising outcome. The constitution theory and practice provide a new approach for health maintenance and disease prevention.

Metformin reduces prostate cancer risk among men with benign prostatic hyperplasia: A nationwide population-based cohort study

Benign Prostate Hyperplasia (BPH) has been associated with prostate cancer prevalent among men after 50 years of age, however, it is unclear whether the antidiabetic drug, metformin, can reduce prostate cancer for men with BPH. The insurance claims data of men aged 50 years or older, with both type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and BPH diagnosed from 1997 to 2007 were analyzed. Individuals were followed up for at least 5 years. We identified 2906 and 2906 patients as the metformin cohort and nonmetformin cohort, respectively. The Cox method analysis showed that the metformin cohort had an adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) of 0.69 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.49‐0.96, P = 0.0298) for prostate cancer, compared to the nonmetformin cohort after controlling for age, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) use, prostate specific antigen, and Charlson comorbidity index. Patients using TCM for BPH (per 6 months) also had an aHR of 0.41 (95% CI = 0.24‐0.69; P = 0.0009). In conclusion, both metformin medication and TCM use could be associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer for men with BPH and diabetes.

Genome sequence of the cauliflower mushroom Sparassis crispa (Hanabiratake) and its association with beneficial usage

Sparassis crispa (Hanabiratake) is a widely used medicinal mushroom in traditional Chinese medicine because it contains materials with pharmacological activity. Here, we report its 39.0-Mb genome, encoding 13,157 predicted genes, obtained using next-generation sequencing along with RNA-seq mapping data. A phylogenetic analysis by comparison with 25 other fungal genomes revealed that S. crispa diverged from Postia placenta, a brown-rot fungus, 94 million years ago. Several features specific to the genome were found, including the A-mating type locus with the predicted genes for HD1 and HD2 heterodomain transcription factors, the mitochondrial intermediate peptidase (MIP), and the B-mating type locus with seven potential pheromone receptor genes and three potential pheromone precursor genes. To evaluate the benefits of the extract and chemicals from S. crispa, we adopted two approaches: (1) characterization of carbohydrate-active enzyme (CAZyme) genes and β-glucan synthase genes and the clusters of genes for the synthesis of second metabolites, such as terpenes, indoles and polyketides, and (2) identification of estrogenic activity in its mycelial extract. Two potential β-glucan synthase genes, ScrFKS1 and ScrFKS2, corresponding to types I and II, respectively, characteristic of Agaricomycetes mushrooms, were newly identified by the search for regions homologous to the reported features of β-glucan synthase genes; both contained the characteristic transmembrane regions and the regions homologous to the catalytic domain of the yeast β-glucan synthase gene FKS1. Rapid estrogenic cell-signaling and DNA microarray-based transcriptome analyses revealed the presence of a new category of chemicals with estrogenic activity, silent estrogens, in the extract. The elucidation of the S. crispa genome and its genes will expand the potential of this organism for medicinal and pharmacological purposes.

Estrogenic terpenes and terpenoids: Pathways, functions and applications

Terpenes are made of the isoprene unit (C₅), and along with their derivatives, terpenoids, they are widely distributed in plants as active ingredients involved in anti-inflammation, anti-carcinogenesis and neuroprotection. Estrogenic terpenes and terpenoids are an important category of phytoestrogens and have been used as traditional medicines. The comprehensive list of estrogenic terpenes and terpenoids includes hemi-, mono-, sesqui-, di-, tri-, tetra- and polyterpenes, their derivatives, and meroterpenes, along with the signaling pathways and cellular functions on which their estrogenicity is exerted. Signaling pathways are further classified as bidirectional or unidirectional, the latter being further divided into two types depending upon the presence of both ligands, or the absence of one or both ligands. Although estrogenic activity of terpenes and terpenoids was evaluated by ligand-binding assays, yeast two-hybrid assays, reporter-gene assays, transcription assays, protein assays, cell assays and animal testing, the mechanism of estrogenic activity is still not fully understood. Applications of estrogenic terpenes and terpenoids are categorized into cancer treatment and prevention, cardioprotection, endocrine toxicity/reproductive dysfunction, food/supplement/traditional medicine, immunology/inflammation, menopausal syndromes and neuroprotection, where their benefits are discussed based on their availability, stability and variations.