Chemistry and microphysics of polar stratospheric clouds and cirrus clouds

Silica as a Model Ice-Nucleating Particle to Study the Effects of Crystallinity, Porosity, and Low-Density Surface Functional Groups on Immersion Freezing

Aerosol particles can facilitate heterogeneous ice formation in the troposphere and stratosphere by acting as ice-nucleating particles, modulating cloud formation/dissipation, precipitation, and their microphysical properties. Heterogeneous ice nucleation is driven by ice embryo formation on the particle surface, which can be influenced by features of the surface such as crystallinity, surface structure, lattice structure, defects, and functional groups. To characterize the effect of crystallinity, pores, and surface functional groups toward ice nucleation, samples of comparable silica systems, specifically, quartz, ordered and nonordered porous amorphous silica samples with a range of pore sizes (2-11 nm), and nonporous functionalized silica spheres, were used as models for mineral dust aerosol particles. The ice nucleation activity of these samples was investigated by using an immersion freezing chamber. The results suggest that crystallinity has a larger effect than porosity on ice nucleation activity, as all of the porous silica samples investigated had lower onset freezing temperatures and lower ice nucleation activities than quartz. Our findings also suggest that pores alone are not sufficient to serve as effective active sites and need some additional chemical or physical property, like crystallinity, to nucleate ice in immersion mode freezing. The addition of a low density of organic functional groups to nonporous samples showed little enhancement compared to the inherent nucleation activity of silica with native surface hydroxyl groups. The density of functional groups investigated in this work suggests that a different arrangement of surface groups may be needed for enhanced immersion mode ice nucleation activity. In summary, crystallinity dictates the ice nucleation activity of silica samples rather than porosity or low-density surface functional groups. This work has broader implications regarding the climate impacts resulting from ice cloud formation.

Size-Dependent Onset of Nitric Acid Dissociation in Cs+·(HNO3)(H2O)n=0-11 Clusters at 20 K

We report the water-mediated charge separation of nitric acid upon incorporation into size-selected Cs⁺·(HNO₃)(H₂O)_n=0-11 clusters at 20 K. Dramatic spectral changes are observed in the n = 7-9 range that are traced to the formation of many isomeric structures associated with intermediate transfer of the acidic proton to the water network. This transfer is complete by n = 10, which exhibits much simpler vibrational band patterns consistent with those expected for a tricoordinated hydronium ion (the Eigen motif) along with the NO stretching bands predicted for a hydrated NO₃^- anion that is directly complexed to the Cs⁺ cation. Theoretical analysis of the n = 10 spectrum indicates that the dissociated ions adopt a solvent-separated ion-pair configuration such that the Cs⁺ and H₃O⁺ cations flank the NO₃^- anion in a microhydrated salt bridge. This charge separation motif is evidently assisted by the electrostatic stabilization of the product NO₃^-/H₃O⁺ ion pair by the proximal metal ion.

Metastable Nitric Acid Trihydrate in Ice Clouds

The composition of high‐altitude ice clouds is still a matter of intense discussion. The constituents in question are ice and nitric acid hydrates, but the exact phase composition of clouds and its formation mechanisms are still unknown. In this work, conclusive evidence for a long‐predicted phase, alpha‐nitric acid trihydrate (alpha‐NAT), is presented. This phase was characterized by a combination of X‐ray and neutron diffraction experiments, allowing a convincing structure solution. Furthermore, vibrational spectra (infrared and inelastic neutron scattering) were recorded and compared with theoretical calculations. A strong interaction between water ice and alpha‐NAT was found, which explains the experimental spectra and the phase‐transition kinetics. On the basis of these results, we propose a new three‐step mechanism for NAT formation in high‐altitude ice clouds.

Mass and elemental distributions of atmospheric particles nearby blast furnace and electric arc furnace operated industrial areas in Australia

The improved understanding of mass and elemental distributions of industrial air particles is important due to their heterogeneous atmospheric behaviour and impact on human health and the environment. In this study, particles of different size ranges were collected from three sites in Australia located in the vicinity of iron and steelmaking industries and one urban background site with very little industrial influence. In order to determine the importance of the type of industrial activity on the urban atmospheric quality, the industrial sites selected in this study were in the close proximity to two blast furnace operated and one electric arc furnace based steelmaking sites. The chemical compositions of the collected air particles were analysed using the proton induced X-ray emission (PIXE) technique. This study revealed significantly higher metal concentrations in the atmospheric particles collected in the industrial sites, comparing to the background urban site, demonstrating local influence of the industrial activities to the air quality. The modality types of the particles were found to be variable between the mass and elements, and among elements in the urban and industrial areas indicating that the elemental modal distribution is as important as particle mass for particle pollution modelling. The highest elemental number distribution at all studied sites occurred with particle size of 0.1 μm. Iron was found as the main dominant metal at the industrial atmosphere in each particle size range. The industrial Fe fraction in the submicron and ultrafine size particles was estimated at up to 95% which may be released from high temperature industrial activities with the iron and steelmaking industries being one of the major contributors. Hence, these industrial elemental loadings can highly influence the atmospheric pollution at local urban and regional levels and are required to consider in the atmospheric modelling settings.

Organic constituents on the surfaces of aerosol particles from Southern Finland, Amazonia, and California studied by vibrational sum frequency generation

This article summarizes and compares the analysis of the surfaces of natural aerosol particles from three different forest environments by vibrational sum frequency generation. The experiments were carried out directly on filter and impactor substrates, without the need for sample preconcentration, manipulation, or destruction. We discuss the important first steps leading to secondary organic aerosol (SOA) particle nucleation and growth from terpene oxidation by showing that, as viewed by coherent vibrational spectroscopy, the chemical composition of the surface region of aerosol particles having sizes of 1 μm and lower appears to be close to size-invariant. We also discuss the concept of molecular chirality as a chemical marker that could be useful for quantifying how chemical constituents in the SOA gas phase and the SOA particle phase are related in time. Finally, we describe how the combination of multiple disciplines, such as aerosol science, advanced vibrational spectroscopy, meteorology, and chemistry can be highly informative when studying particles collected during atmospheric chemistry field campaigns, such as those carried out during HUMPPA-COPEC-2010, AMAZE-08, or BEARPEX-2009, and when they are compared to results from synthetic model systems such as particles from the Harvard Environmental Chamber (HEC). Discussions regarding the future of SOA chemical analysis approaches are given in the context of providing a path toward detailed spectroscopic assignments of SOA particle precursors and constituents and to fast-forward, in terms of mechanistic studies, through the SOA particle formation process.

Chemistry and Composition of Atmospheric Aerosol Particles

For more than two decades a cadre of physical chemists has focused on understanding the formation processes, chemical composition, and chemical kinetics of atmospheric aerosol particles and droplets with diameters ranging from a few nanometers to ∼10,000 nm. They have adapted or invented a range of fundamental experimental and theoretical tools to investigate the thermochemistry, mass transport, and chemical kinetics of processes occurring at nanoscale gas-liquid and gas-solid interfaces for a wide range of nonideal, real-world substances. State-of-the-art laboratory methods devised to study molecular spectroscopy, chemical kinetics, and molecular dynamics also have been incorporated into field measurement instruments that are deployed routinely on research aircraft, ships, and mobile laboratories as well as at field sites from megacities to the most remote jungle, desert, and polar locations. These instruments can now provide real-time, size-resolved aerosol particle physical property and chemical composition data anywhere in Earth's troposphere and lower stratosphere.

Theoretical study of the dissociation of nitric acid at a model aqueous surface

The issue of acid dissociation of nitric acid at an aqueous surface is relevant in various portions of the atmosphere in connection with ozone depletion. This proton-transfer reaction is studied here via electronic structure calculations at the HF/SBK+(d) level of theory on the HNO(3) x (H(2)O)(3) model reaction system embedded in clusters comprising 33, 40, 45, and 50 classical, polarizable waters with an increasing degree of solvation of the nitrate group. Free energy estimates for all the cases examined favor undissociated, molecular nitric acid over the 0-300 K temperature range, including that relevant for the upper troposphere, where it is connected to the issue of the mechanism of nitric acid uptake by water ice aerosols. The presence of molecular HNO(3) at 300 K at the surface is further supported by vibrational band assignments in good agreement with a very recent surface-sensitive vibrational spectroscopy study of diluted HNO(3)/H(2)O solutions.

Nonlinear Vibrational Spectroscopic Studies of the Adsorption and Speciation of Nitric Acid at the Vapor/Acid Solution Interface

Nitric acid plays an important role in the heterogeneous chemistry of the atmosphere. Reactions involving HNO(3) at aqueous interfaces in the stratosphere and troposphere depend on the state of nitric acid at these surfaces. The vapor/liquid interface of HNO(3)-H2O binary solutions and HNO(3)-H(2)SO(4)-H2O ternary solutions are examined here using vibrational sum frequency spectroscopy (VSFS). Spectra of the NO2 group at different HNO(3) mole fractions and under different polarization combinations are used to develop a detailed picture of these atmospherically important systems. Consistent with surface tension and spectroscopic measurements from other laboratories, molecular nitric acid is identified at the surface of concentrated solutions. However, the data here reveal the adsorption of two different hydrogen-bonded species of undissociated HNO(3) in the interfacial region that differ in their degree of solvation of the nitro group. The adsorption of these undissociated nitric acid species is shown to be sensitive to the H2O:HNO(3) ratio as well as to the concentration of sulfuric acid.

Cirrus cloud mimics in the laboratory: An infrared spectroscopy study of thin films of mixed ice of water with organic acids and ammonia

The structures of formic and acetic acids deposited on a thin gold substrate held in vacuum at low temperatures and their related water-ice promoted chemistry have been investigated. The condensed water/guest films were taken to act as cirrus cloud "mimics." Such laboratory representations provide a necessary prelude to understanding how low temperature surfaces can affect chemical composition changes in the upper atmosphere. The systems were characterized by reflection-absorption infrared spectroscopy and temperature-programmed desorption spectrometry. The interaction behavior of the binary acid ices was compared to that observed when ternary mixtures of water, formic acid, and ammonia were deposited. Differences in the chemistry were observed depending on deposition method: layering or mixing. The more atmospherically relevant codeposition approach showed that at low temperatures, amorphous formic acid can be ionized to its monodentate form by water ice within the bulk rather than on the surface. In contrast, the introduction of ammonia leads to full bidentate ionization on the ice surface. The thermal desorption profiles of codeposited films of water, ammonia, and formic acid indicate that desorption occurs in three stages. The first is a slow release of ammonia between 120 and 160 K, then the main water desorption event occurs with a maximum rate close to 180 K, followed by a final release of ammonia and formic acid at about 230 K originating from nonhydrous ammonium formate on the surface. The behavior of acetic acid is similar to formic acid but shows lesser propensity to ionize in bulk water ice.

Formation of Low-Temperature Cirrus from H2SO4/H2O Aerosol Droplets

We present experimental results obtained with a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) that indicate the small ice particles in low-temperature cirrus clouds are not completely solid but rather coated with an unfrozen H2SO4/H2O overlayer. Our results provide a new look on the formation, development, and microphysical properties of low-temperature cirrus clouds.

Lowest-Energy Structures of Water Clusters (H2O)11 and (H2O)13

We employed a four-step searching/screening approach to determine best candidates for the global minima of (H2O)11 and (H2O)13. This approach can be useful when there exist a large number of low-lying and near-isoenergetic isomers, many of which have the same oxygen-skeleton structure. On the two new candidates for the global minimum of (H2O)11, one isomer can be viewed as placing the 11th molecule onto the side of the global minimum of (H2O)10 and the other can be viewed as removing the 12th molecule from the middle layer of the global minimum of (H2O)12. The three leading lowest-energy clusters of (H2O)13 can all be built starting from the global minimum of (H2O)12, with the difference being in the location of the 13th water molecule.

Heterogeneous reactions important in atmospheric ozone depletion: a theoretical perspective

Theoretical studies of the mechanisms of several heterogeneous reactions involving ClONO(2), H(2)O, HCl, HBr, and H(2)SO(4) important in atmospheric ozone depletion are described, focused primarily on reactions on aqueous aerosol surfaces. Among the insights obtained is the active chemical participation of the surface water molecules in several of these reactions. The general methodology adopted allows reduction of these complex chemical problems to meaningful model systems amenable to quantum chemical calculations.

Low-Frequency Raman Spectra of Nitric Acid Hydrates

Raman spectra of solid nitric acid hydrates (NAM, alpha- and beta-NAD, alpha- and beta-NAT, and NAP) are obtained in the low-frequency region 20-175 cm(-1) where phonon bands show characteristic patterns. This fingerprint information, intimately related to the structure and symmetry of the unit cell, is well suited for observation of phase changes in solid nitric acid hydrates and allows the distinction of mixtures of different hydrate phases. The low-frequency spectra are correlated with the spectra of the respective symmetric NO stretching vibration (1000-1080 cm(-1)), with literature data, and with X-ray diffraction patterns.

Theoretical Study of the First Acid Dissociation of H2SO4 at a Model Aqueous Surface

Electronic structure calculations on the H2SO4.(H2O)(4,6) model system embedded at the surface of an aqueous layer have been performed to examine the feasibility of the first acid dissociation of H2SO4 to an H2SO4-.H3O+ contact ion pair over a wide temperature range, with a special focus on the 190-250 K range relevant for atmospheric sulfate aerosols. The results indicate that the acid dissociation can be either thermodynamically favored or disfavored depending on the degree of solvation of the acid and the produced ions, as well as on the temperature.

Influence of Monolayer Amounts of HNO3 on the Evaporation Rate of H2O over Ice in the Range 179 to 208 K: A Quartz Crystal Microbalance Study

The evaporation flux J(ev) of H2O from thin H2O ice films containing between 0.5 and 7 monolayers of HNO3 has been measured in the range 179 to 208 K under both molecular and stirred flow conditions in isothermal experiments. FTIR absorption of the HNO3/H2O condensate revealed the formation of metastable alpha-NAT (HNO(3).3H2O) converting to stable beta-NAT at 205 K. After deposition of HNO3 for 16-80 s on a 1 mum thick pure ice film at a deposition rate in the range (6-60) x 10(12) molecules s(-1) the initial evaporative flux J(ev)(H2O) was always that of pure ice. J(ev)(H2O) gradually decreased with the evaporation of H2O and the concomitant increase of the average mole fraction of HNO3, chi(HNO3), indicating the presence of an amorphous mixture of H2O/HNO3 that is called complexed or (c)-ice whose vapor pressure is that of pure ice. The final value of J(ev) was smaller by factors varying from 2.7 to 65 relative to pure ice. Depending on the doping conditions and temperature of the ice film the pure ice thickness d(D) of the ice film for which J(ev) < 0.85J(ev)(pure ice) varied between 130 and 700 nm compared to the 1000 nm thick original ice film at 208 and 191 K, respectively, in what seems to be an inverse temperature dependence. There exist three different types of H2O molecules under the present experimental conditions, namely (a) free H2O corresponding to pure ice, (b) complexed H2O or c-ice, and (c) H2O molecules originating from the breakup of NAT or amorphous H2O/HNO3 mixtures. The significant decrease of J(ev)(H2O) with increasing chi(HNO3) leads to an increase of the evaporative lifetime of atmospheric ice particles in the presence of HNO3 and may help explain the occurrence of persistent and/or large contaminated ice particles at certain atmospheric conditions.

Optical Constants of HNO3/H2O and H2SO4/HNO3/H2O at Low Temperatures in the Infrared Region

The complex index of refraction of liquid HNO3/H2O and H2SO4/HNO3/H2O has been obtained at different temperatures and acid concentrations. FT-IR specular reflectance spectra were obtained for 30, 54, and 64 wt % aqueous HNO3 and for four different H2SO4/HNO3/H2O mixtures in the temperature region from 293 to 183 K. The complex index of refraction was obtained from the reflectance spectra with the Kramers-Kronig transformation. The optical constants of the binary and ternary mixtures vary with the acid concentration and the temperature. The results demonstrate that vibrational bands originating from the sulfate species are more sensitive to changes in temperature than the bands originating from vibrations in the nitrate species; only minor changes in the nitrate vibrational bands are observed as the temperature decreases below 248 K.

Protons colliding with crystalline ice: proton reflection and collision induced water desorption at low incidence energies

We present results of classical trajectory (CT) calculations on the sticking of protons to the basal plane (0001) face of crystalline ice, for normal incidence at a surface temperature (Ts) of 80 K. The calculations were performed for moderately low incidence energies (Ei) ranging from 0.05 to 4.0 eV. Surprisingly, significant reflection is predicted at low values of Ei (< or = 0.2 eV) due to repulsive electrostatic interactions between the incident proton and the surface water molecules with one of their H-atoms pointing upward toward the gas phase. The sticking probability increases with Ei and converges to unity for Ei > or = 0.8 eV. In the case of sticking, the proton is trapped in the ice forming a Zundel complex (H5O2+), with an average binding energy of 9.9 eV with a standard deviation of 0.5 eV, independent of the value of Ei. In nearly all sticking trajectories, the proton is implanted into the ice surface, with a penetration depth that increases with Ei. The strong interaction with the neighboring water molecules leads to a local rupture of the hydrogen bonding network, resulting in collision induced desorption of water (puffing), a process that occurs with significant probability even at the lowest Ei considered. The probability of water desorption increases with Ei. In nearly all trajectories in which water desorption occurs, a single three-coordinated water molecule is desorbed from the topmost monolayer.

Stimulated desorption of cations from pristine and acidic low-temperature water ice surfaces

Electron-impact ionization of low-temperature water ice leads to H+, H+2, and H+(H2O)(n=1-8) desorption. The 22 eV H+ desorption threshold is correlated with localized 2-hole 1-electron and 2-hole final states which Coulomb explode, while the 22 eV H+2 threshold is due to H2O+ unimolecular dissociation. The 70 eV primary cluster ion threshold is consistent with holes in the 2a(1) level and secondary ionization channels. All cation yields are sensitive to local structural changes and probe surface acidity. The cluster size distribution indicates hole-hole screening distances of 1-2 nm.