Regulation of glutamate transport and transport proteins in a placental cell line

Poly(I:C) alters placental and fetal brain amino acid transport in a rat model of maternal immune activation

PROBLEM

Maternal immune activation (MIA) during pregnancy is associated with increased chances of neurodevelopmental disorders including schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the exact mechanism through which MIA contributes to altered neurodevelopment is unknown. Due to the important role that amino acids play in neurodevelopment, altered amino acid transport could play a role in neurodevelopmental disorders. Indeed, altered plasma concentrations of multiple amino acids have been reported in individuals with ASD or schizophrenia. Therefore, our objective was to determine whether virally mediated MIA induces changes in amino acid transporters in the placenta and fetal brain.

METHOD OF STUDY

Pregnant rats were administered poly(I:C) on gestational day 14, and placental and fetal tissues were collected 6, 24, and 48 hours later. Amino acid transporter expression was measured in the placenta and fetal brain using qPCR, Western blotting, and Simple Western. Free amino acid concentrations in the fetal brain were quantified using HPLC.

RESULTS

Poly(I:C) increased mRNA expression of several amino acid transporters in the placenta and fetal brain over these timepoints. Conversely, poly(I:C) imposed significant decreases in the protein expression of ASCT1 and EAAT2 in placenta and expression of SNAT5, EAAT1, and GLYT1 in fetal brain. Functional consequences of altered transporter expression were demonstrated through widespread changes in the concentrations of free amino acids in the fetal brains.

CONCLUSION

Together, these results represent novel findings with the poly(I:C) MIA model and contribute to the understanding of how MIA during pregnancy potentially leads to neurodevelopmental disorders.

Hemodynamic effects of titrated norepinephrine in healthy versus endotoxemic sheep

In patients with sepsis and systemic inflammatory response syndrome, hemodynamic support is often complicated by a vascular hyporesponsiveness to exogenously administered norepinephrine. Although norepinephrine tachyphylaxis represents a significant clinical problem, the relationship between norepinephrine dosages and mean arterial pressure (MAP) in the presence of systemic inflammation is still not fully understood. This study was, therefore, designed as a prospective, controlled laboratory trial to elucidate the hemodynamic response to incremental norepinephrine doses in healthy and endotoxemic sheep. ANOVA demonstrated that a significantly higher mean infusion rate of norepinephrine was needed to increase MAP by 20 mmHg in endotoxemic versus healthy control sheep (P = 0.007). Whereas the goal-MAP was reached in 100% of healthy controls, it was achieved in only 80% during endotoxemia. Cardiac index increased significantly in healthy, but not in endotoxemic, sheep. Our findings confirm the presence of vascular hyporesponsiveness to norepinephrine in endotoxemia. In addition, this study demonstrates that the presence of systemic inflammation leads to an early hyporesponsiveness against norepinephrine which was caused by a drug-independent mechanism rather than a tachyphylaxis due to long-term administration of norepinephrine.

Expression and Transport Activity of Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (Bcrp/Abcg2) in Dually Perfused Rat Placenta and HRP-1 Cell Line

Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2) is a member of the ATP-binding cassette transporter family that recognizes a variety of chemically unrelated compounds. Its expression has been revealed in many mammal tissues, including placenta. The purpose of this study was to describe its role in transplacental pharmacokinetics using rat placental HRP-1 cell line and dually perfused rat placenta. In HRP-1 cells, expression of Bcrp, but not P-glycoprotein, was revealed at mRNA and protein levels. Cell accumulation studies confirmed Bcrp-dependent uptake of BODIPY FL prazosin. In the placental perfusion studies, a pharmacokinetic model was applied to distinguish between passive and Bcrp-mediated transplacental passage of cimetidine as a model substrate. Bcrp was shown to act in a concentration-dependent manner and to hinder maternal-to-fetal transport of the drug. Fetal-to-maternal clearance of cimetidine was found to be 25 times higher than that in the opposite direction; this asymmetry was partly eliminated by BCRP inhibitors fumitremorgin C (2 microM) or N-(4-[2-(1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6,7-dimethoxy-2-isoquinolinyl)ethyl]-phenyl)-9,10-dihydro-5-methoxy-9-oxo-4-acridine carboxamide (GF120918; 2 microM) and abolished at high cimetidine concentrations (1000 microM). When fetal perfusate was recirculated, Bcrp was found to actively remove cimetidine from the fetal compartment to the maternal compartment even against a concentration gradient and to establish a 2-fold maternal-to-fetal concentration ratio. Based on our results, we propose a two-level defensive role of Bcrp in the rat placenta in which the transporter 1) reduces passage of its substrates from mother to fetus but also 2) removes the drug already present in the fetal circulation.

Identification of committed placental stem cell lines for studies of differentiation

Trophoblasts provide a model to investigate fundamental mechanisms of stem cell differentiation, but the availability of trophoblast stem cell lines is limited. Here we report the development of an RT-PCR-based lineage-specific profile as a method to identify the lineages of placental trophoblast cells routinely and specifically. This profiling method was used to analyze the mouse SM10 and rat HRP-1 cell lines, isolated from a region of the placental labyrinth, but of previously unidentified lineage. Using this profile, the expression of trophoblast stem cell markers was detected in the SM10 and HRP-1 cells. In contrast, no expression of a marker of differentiated labyrinthine trophoblast was detected. Additionally, both cell lines expressed labyrinthine trophoblast-specific genes and did not express lineage-specific markers of spongiotrophoblasts or trophoblast giant cells. Our results suggest that SM10 and HRP-1 cell lines are trophoblast stem cell-like cell lines that can be maintained in undifferentiated but committed state in cell culture. These cell lines express labyrinthine-specific genes and are committed to differentiate solely into functional labyrinthine trophoblasts. Our profiling method provides a new technique to identify stem cells and their lineage-specific differentiation. This method additionally indicates that SM10 and HRP-1 cell lines provide new systems for future studies of stem cell differentiation, allowing investigation of basic mechanisms of differentiation, which may provide insights into the biophysics of development of a specialized system. This method should also prove to be useful for identification of other stem cell lines and examination of lineage-specific commitment.

Impact of forskolin and amino acid depletion upon System A activity and SNAT expression in BeWo cells

Amino acid transport System A (SysA) plays an important role in mediating the transplacental transfer of neutral amino acids from mother to fetus. Given that prior work has demonstrated that SysA activity is regulated, both over gestation and in response to dietary restriction during pregnancy, we examined the response of SysA activity and sodium-dependent neutral amino acid transporter (SNAT; responsible for SysA activity) expression to cAMP analogues and amino acid deprivation in BeWo cells, an accepted model of placental syncytia. SysA activity was unaffected by forskolin, a cAMP agonist, at 48 and 72 h. Amino acid depletion was associated with an up-regulation of SysA activity, largely mediated through an enhancement of SNAT2 (Slc38a2) expression at both the protein and mRNA level. SNAT1 (Slc38a1) expression did not change in response to amino acid depletion, while SNAT4 (Slc38a4) could not be detected. In summary, SysA activity in BeWo cells responds to amino acid depletion through the differential regulation of SNAT subtypes.

SNAT expression in rat placenta

Amino acid transport System A (SysA) activity is present within the rodent and human placentas. Inhibition of this transport system is associated with fetal growth retardation. Several cDNAs encoding SysA transport proteins have been discovered, and their presence documented within the human placenta. We have demonstrated the presence of mRNA encoding three of these transporters, SNAT1, 2, and 4 within the rat placenta over the final third of gestation. Abundance of these mRNA species increases from day 14 to day 20 of gestation. Immunohistochemistry demonstrates the presence of SNAT1 and 2 within the placental labyrinth at both days 14 and 20. Transport proteins are also present within marginal giant cells and, for SNAT1, within fetal endothelium. In conclusion, several proteins capable of SysA transport activity are present within the rodent placenta. mRNA expression increases over the final third of gestation, coincident with the period of greatest need for fetal amino acid delivery.

Distribution of Glutamate Transporters in the Human Placenta

Glutamate metabolism is known to be important for growth and development of the human fetus. The glutamate transporters EAAT1, EAAT2 and EAAT3 are key components of the glutamate-glutamine cycle and responsible for active transport of glutamate over the cell membrane. The placenta is thought to regulate glutamate transport during fetal development. Glutamate transporters have been found in placentae of rats, but their distribution in the human placenta is unknown. Therefore, the distribution of glutamate transporters EAAT1, EAAT2 and EAAT3 were analysed in the human placenta during normal pregnancies ending between 8 and 40 weeks of gestation and in placentae of intrauterine growth restricted infants with gestational ages between 28 and 35 weeks of pregnancy. Using immunohistochemistry, EAAT1 expression was found in the syncytiotrophoblast layer, while EAAT2 was detected in the syncytiotrophoblast layer and in endothelial cells of about 5 per cent of all fetal blood vessels. EAAT3 was observed in the endothelium of the fetal blood vessels in all placentae examined. However, expression was also found in the syncytio- and the cytotrophoblast layer of the fetal villi at 8 weeks of gestational age. The expression patterns of EAAT1, EAAT2 and EAAT3 suggest involvement in active transport of glutamate between the fetal and maternal blood circulation. No differences were found in the distribution of the glutamate transporters between control and IUGR placentae. Our data show specific localization of EAAT1, EAAT2 and EAAT3 in the human placenta during development.

Characterization of an organic anion transport system in a placental cell line

Transporters within the placenta play a crucial role in the distribution of nutrients and xenobiotics across the maternal-fetal interface. An organic anion transport system was identified on the apical membrane of the rat placenta cell line HRP-1, a model for the placenta barrier. The apical uptake of 3H-labeled organic anion estrone sulfate in HRP-1 cells was saturable (Km = 4.67 microM), temperature and Na+ dependent, Li+ tolerant, and pH sensitive. The substrate specificity of the transport system includes various steroid sulfates, such as beta-estradiol 3,17-disulfate, 17 beta-estradiol 3-sulfate, and dehydroepiandrosterone 3-sulfate (DHEAS) but does not include taurocholate, p-aminohippuric acid (PAH), and tetraethylammonium. Preincubation of HRP-1 cells with 8-bromo-cAMP (a cAMP analog) and forskolin (an adenylyl cyclase activator) acutely stimulated the apical transport activity. This stimulation was further enhanced in the presence of IBMX (a phosphodiesterase inhibitor). Together these data show that the apical membrane of HRP-1 cells expresses an organic anion transport system that is regulated by cellular cAMP levels. This transport system appears to be different from the known taurocholate-transporting organic anion-transporting polypeptides and PAH-transporting organic anion transporters, both of which also mediate the transport of estrone sulfate and DHEAS.

Isoforms of amino acid transporters in placental syncytiotrophoblast: plasma membrane localization and potential role in maternal/fetal transport

Many cell proteins exist as isoforms arising either from gene duplication or alternate RNA splicing. There is growing evidence that isoforms with different, but closely related, functional characteristics are often directed to discrete cellular locations. Thus, specialized functions may be carried out by proteins of similar evolutionary origin in different membrane compartments. In polarized epithelial cells, this mechanism allows the cell to control amino acid transport independently at each of its specialized apical and basolateral plasma membrane domains. Investigations of isoform localization in these membranes have generally been performed in epithelia other than the placental trophoblast.This review of placental amino acid transporter isoforms first provides an overview of their properties and preliminary plasma membrane localization. We then discuss studies suggesting various roles of isoform localization in trophoblast function. To provide insights into the molecular basis of this localization in trophoblast, we present a review of current knowledge of plasma membrane protein localization as derived from investigations with a widely used epithelial model cell line. Finally, we discuss a potential approach using cultured trophoblast-derived cells for studies of transporter isoform localization and function. We hope that this review will stimulate investigation of the properties of trophoblast transporter isoforms, their membrane localization and their contribution to the cellular mechanism of maternal-fetal nutrient transport.

Glutamate transport by Rcho-1 cells derived from rat placenta

Marginal giant cells within the rodent placenta are important sources of androgens, critical to maintenance of pregnancy. Androgen synthesis requires NADPH, a by-product of glutamate oxidation. We examined the uptake of glutamate into rat choriocarcinoma cells, which have been shown to maintain many of the characteristics of marginal giant cells in culture. Na+-dependent, d-aspartate inhibitable uptake consistent with System XAG- mediated transport was present, as were proteins capable of System XAG- activity, EAAC1, GLAST1, and GLT1. Glutamate uptake in rat choriocarcinoma cells was up-regulated by amino acid deprivation-a response that was not reversed by the addition of glutamate to the media. Inhibition data suggested up-regulation of transport activity mediated by either EAAC1 or GLAST1 at 6 h, whereas at 24 and 48 h, up-regulation of GLT1 plays an increasing role. Levels of EAAC1 immunoreactive protein increased with time under amino acid depleted conditions, whereas those of GLAST1 and GLT1 remained stable or declined but not significantly.

Nutrition in early life. How important is it?

While few would argue the importance of nutrition during adult life, temporary excess or deficiency has typically been thought to be of little long-term consequence. Recent data, summarized above, suggests that this may not be the case during in utero life, when alterations in the quantity or quality of nutrients provided may have life-long consequences. Perhaps even more surprisingly, decisions made in the neonatal period, such as whether to breastfeed or bottle feed, may have impacts on later health that, while small individually, have huge public health implications. Clarification of the links between adult health and fetal/neonatal nutrition are clearly required. Prospective studies, though difficult because of the time involved, will play a key role in this process, as will more basic research on the mechanisms underlying both normal and pathologic fetal development.