Tolbutamide and diazoxide modulate phospholipase C-linked Ca(2+) signaling and insulin secretion in beta-cells

Chronic stimulation induces adaptive potassium channel activity that restores calcium oscillations in pancreatic islets in vitro

Insulin pulsatility is important to hepatic response in regulating blood glucose. Growing evidence suggests that insulin-secreting pancreatic β-cells can adapt to chronic disruptions of pulsatility to rescue this physiologically important behavior. We determined the time scale for adaptation and examined potential ion channels underlying it. We induced the adaptation both by chronic application of the ATP-sensitive K⁺ [K(ATP)] channel blocker tolbutamide and by application of the depolarizing agent potassium chloride (KCl). Acute application of tolbutamide without pretreatment results in elevated Ca²⁺ as measured by fura-2AM and the loss of endogenous pulsatility. We show that after chronic exposure to tolbutamide (12-24 h), Ca²⁺ oscillations occur with subsequent acute tolbutamide application. The same experiment was conducted with potassium chloride (KCl) to directly depolarize the β-cells. Once again, following chronic exposure to the cell stimulator, the islets produced Ca²⁺ oscillations when subsequently exposed to tolbutamide. These experiments suggest that it is the chronic stimulation, and not tolbutamide desensitization, that is responsible for the adaptation that rescues oscillatory β-cell activity. This compensatory response also causes islet glucose sensitivity to shift rightward following chronic tolbutamide treatment. Mathematical modeling shows that a small increase in the number of K(ATP) channels in the membrane is one adaptation mechanism that is compatible with the data. To examine other compensatory mechanisms, pharmacological studies provide support that Kir2.1 and TEA-sensitive channels play some role. Overall, this investigation demonstrates β-cell adaptability to overstimulation, which is likely an important mechanism for maintaining glucose homeostasis in the face of chronic stimulation.

Assessment of re-aggregated human pancreatic islets for secondary drug screening

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Insulin secretion from isolated pancreatic islets is a pivotal assay in developing novel insulin secretagogues, given its good correlation with in vivo efficacy. Because the supply of human islets is limited, this assay is typically run with rodent islets, which do not address species differences and are low-throughput, because of the size matching or volume normalization required. Here we have evaluated the suitability of human re-aggregated islets for this assay.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

We generated re-aggregated human islets of a consistent size, using micromolds and compared their responses with those of native human and rat islets, to known secretagogues and inhibitors of insulin release.

KEY RESULTS

Insulin secretion from rat islets, human islets and human re-aggregated cell clusters was concentration-dependently increased by glucose. The calcium channel agonist, Bay K 8644, stimulated insulin secretion in native rat islets and human re-aggregated islets, but not native human islets. Glibenclamide and tolbutamide were more effective and potent in re-aggregated human clusters compared with the other two preparations. Rat islets outperformed both human preparations of islets in response to caffeine, carbachol and glucagon-like peptide-1. Re-aggregated human islet clusters were more sensitive to somatostatin, diazoxide and sodium azide, but rodent islets were more sensitive to nifedipine.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Human re-aggregated clusters of islet cells, of a constant size were more responsive to all compounds tested than native human islets. Importantly, the assay variability was less in the re-aggregated cluster preparations, which suggests that such re-aggregated cells could be useful for drug development.

Free fatty acids increase cytosolic free calcium and stimulate insulin secretion from beta-cells through activation of GPR40

Free fatty acids (FFA) cause a rise in cytosolic free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) and stimulate insulin release from pancreatic beta-cells. The G-protein coupled receptor GPR40 can be activated by medium- and long-chain FFA. We investigated a potential role for GPR40 in the generation of the FFA-induced Ca2+ signal and insulin secretion. [Ca2+]i was measured in primary mouse beta-cells and in INS-1 cells, and insulin secretion was assessed from INS-1 cells. GPR40 expression was determined by RT-PCR and downregulation of GPR40 expression by siRNA transfection was carried out in INS-1 cells. A number of saturated, mono- and polyunsaturated medium- and long-chain FFA caused a rise in [Ca2+]i both in primary mouse beta-cells and in INS-1 cells. By contrast, the short-chain saturated caproic acid was ineffective at concentrations up to 300 microM. In INS-1 cells, the FFA-induced Ca2+ signal required mobilization of internal Ca2+ and Ca2+ influx through voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels. RT-PCR analysis revealed that GPR40 is expressed in INS-1 cells. Downregulation of GPR40 by specific siRNA treatment lead to a significant inhibition of the FFA-induced [Ca2+]i response and insulin secretion, indicating that the FFA-stimulated Ca2+ signal and insulin secretion involve activation of GPR40 in pancreatic beta-cells.

Metastatic insulinoma: case report and review of the literature

A 64-year-old nondiabetic woman presented with spells of lightheadedness and diaphoresis associated with lethargy and hunger of 2 weeks' duration. Physical examination was unremarkable; however, her fasting plasma glucose was 66 mg/dl, with concurrent plasma insulin of 171 microIU/ml (normal, 5-27 microIU/ml). Her C-peptide and pro-insulin levels were elevated, with negative insulin antibody and negative urinary sulfonylurea levels. Abdominal computed tomographic scan demonstrated a 5 x 4-cm mass in the tail of the pancreas and many liver metastases. She underwent resection of the pancreatic mass, radiofrequency ablation, and cauterization of hepatic lesions. Histology confirmed pancreatic insulinoma. Ten months later, she was free of hypoglycemic symptoms, with normal plasma insulin C-peptide and significantly decreased proinsulin levels. Insulinomas are rare, predominantly benign tumors. Surgery is the only curative treatment. Octreotide can be used to control hormone secretion and tumor growth. Other treatments include hepatic embolization, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and liver transplantation.

Palmitate-induced Ca2+-signaling in pancreatic beta-cells

Free fatty acids (FFA) have been proposed to participate in the regulation of insulin release from pancreatic beta-cells (beta-cells). As a rise in cytosolic free Ca2+ ([Ca(2+)]i) is a key event for the stimulation of insulin secretion, the effects of saturated FFA on [Ca2+]i were investigated. Palmitate was used as a reference compound and [Ca2+]i was measured in single fura-2 loaded HIT-T15 and in primary mouse beta-cells. Stimulation of single beta-cells with palmitate (100 microM) caused either repetitive Ca2+ transients or a plateau-like rise in [Ca2+]i. In HIT-T15 and in mouse beta-cells, the number of palmitate-responsive cells, and the amplitude of the palmitate-induced Ca2+-signals were dependent on the extracellular glucose concentration. In Ca2+-free medium palmitate (100 microM) caused only 1 or 2 Ca2+ transients indicating mobilization of Ca2+ from internal stores. Withdrawal of external Ca2+, the addition of voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channel (VSCC) blockers, as well as the K(ATP)-channel opener diazoxide (100 microM) reversibly blocked the palmitate-induced cytosolic Ca2+ responses. This demonstrates that Ca2+ influx through VSCC of the L-type coupled to membrane depolarization through closure of K(ATP)-channels are crucial for a sustained Ca2+-signal in response to palmitate. Methyl palmoxirate (100 microM) and 2-bromopalmitate (100 microM), which both inhibit transport of acyl-CoA into the mitochondria, reversibly blocked the palmitate-induced Ca2+-signals in HIT-T15 as well as in primary mouse beta-cells. By contrast, cerulenin (100 microM), an inhibitor of protein acylation, had no effect on the palmitate-induced changes in [Ca2+]i, which suggests that mitochondrial palmitate metabolism is required for eliciting the Ca2+-signals. Simultaneous measurement of [Ca2+]i and the mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi) revealed palmitate-induced depolarization of DeltaPsi which demonstrates that palmitate does not enhance mitochondrial ATP production. Therefore mitochondrial signals other than ATP appear to be generated from palmitate metabolism that underly the palmitate-induced Ca2+-signals in pancreatic beta-cells.

Mechanisms and physiological significance of the cholinergic control of pancreatic beta-cell function

Acetylcholine (ACh), the major parasympathetic neurotransmitter, is released by intrapancreatic nerve endings during the preabsorptive and absorptive phases of feeding. In beta-cells, ACh binds to muscarinic M(3) receptors and exerts complex effects, which culminate in an increase of glucose (nutrient)-induced insulin secretion. Activation of PLC generates diacylglycerol. Activation of PLA(2) produces arachidonic acid and lysophosphatidylcholine. These phospholipid-derived messengers, particularly diacylglycerol, activate PKC, thereby increasing the efficiency of free cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](c)) on exocytosis of insulin granules. IP3, also produced by PLC, causes a rapid elevation of [Ca(2+)](c) by mobilizing Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum; the resulting fall in Ca(2+) in the organelle produces a small capacitative Ca(2+) entry. ACh also depolarizes the plasma membrane of beta-cells by a Na(+)- dependent mechanism. When the plasma membrane is already depolarized by secretagogues such as glucose, this additional depolarization induces a sustained increase in [Ca(2+)](c). Surprisingly, ACh can also inhibit voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels and stimulate Ca(2+) efflux when [Ca(2+)](c) is elevated. However, under physiological conditions, the net effect of ACh on [Ca(2+)](c) is always positive. The insulinotropic effect of ACh results from two mechanisms: one involves a rise in [Ca(2+)](c) and the other involves a marked, PKC-mediated increase in the efficiency of Ca(2+) on exocytosis. The paper also discusses the mechanisms explaining the glucose dependence of the effects of ACh on insulin release.