Distinct modulation of Kv1.2 channel gating by wild type, but not open form, of syntaxin-1A

Tracking Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent conformational transitions in syntaxin 1A during exocytosis in neuroendocrine cells

A key issue for understanding exocytosis is elucidating the various protein interactions and the associated conformational transitions underlying soluble N-ethylmeleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein assembly. To monitor dynamic changes in syntaxin 1A (Syx) conformation along exocytosis, we constructed a novel fluorescent Syx-based probe that can be efficiently incorporated within endogenous SNARE complexes, support exocytosis, and report shifts in Syx between 'closed' and 'open' conformations by fluorescence resonance energy transfer analysis. Using this probe we resolve two distinct Syx conformational transitions during membrane depolarization-induced exocytosis in PC12 cells: a partial 'opening' in the absence of Ca(2+) entry and an additional 'opening' upon Ca(2+) entry. The Ca(2+)-dependent transition is abolished upon neutralization of the basic charges in the juxtamembrane regions of Syx, which also impairs exocytosis. These novel findings provide evidence of two conformational transitions in Syx during exocytosis, which have not been reported before: one transition directly induced by depolarization and an additional transition that involves the juxtamembrane region of Syx. The superior sensitivity of our probe also enabled detection of subtle Syx conformational changes upon interaction with VAMP2, which were absolutely dependent on the basic charges of the juxtamembrane region. Hence, our results further suggest that the Ca(2+)-dependent transition in Syx involves zippering between the membrane-proximal juxtamembrane regions of Syx and VAMP2 and support the recently implied existence of this zippering in the final phase of SNARE assembly to catalyze exocytosis.

Dynamic of Ion Channel Expression at the Plasma Membrane of Cardiomyocytes

Cardiac myocytes are characterized by distinct structural and functional entities involved in the generation and transmission of the action potential and the excitation-contraction coupling process. Key to their function is the specific organization of ion channels and transporters to and within distinct membrane domains, which supports the anisotropic propagation of the depolarization wave. This review addresses the current knowledge on the molecular actors regulating the distinct trafficking and targeting mechanisms of ion channels in the highly polarized cardiac myocyte. In addition to ubiquitous mechanisms shared by other excitable cells, cardiac myocytes show unique specialization, illustrated by the molecular organization of myocyte-myocyte contacts, e.g., the intercalated disc and the gap junction. Many factors contribute to the specialization of the cardiac sarcolemma and the functional expression of cardiac ion channels, including various anchoring proteins, motors, small GTPases, membrane lipids, and cholesterol. The discovery of genetic defects in some of these actors, leading to complex cardiac disorders, emphasizes the importance of trafficking and targeting of ion channels to cardiac function. A major challenge in the field is to understand how these and other actors work together in intact myocytes to fine-tune ion channel expression and control cardiac excitability.

Differential regulation of action potentials by inactivating and noninactivating BK channels in rat adrenal chromaffin cells

Large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels can regulate cellular excitability in complex ways because they are able to respond independently to two distinct cellular signals, cytosolic Ca(2+) and membrane potential. In rat chromaffin cells (RCC), inactivating BK(i) and noninactivating (BK(s)) channels differentially contribute to RCC action potential (AP) firing behavior. However, the basis for these differential effects has not been fully established. Here, we have simulated RCC action potential behavior, using Markovian models of BK(i) and BK(s) current and other RCC currents. The analysis shows that BK current influences both fast hyperpolarization and afterhyperpolarization of single APs and that, consistent with experimental observations, BK(i) current facilitates repetitive firing of APs, whereas BK(s) current does not. However, the key functional difference between BK(i) and BK(s) current that accounts for the differential firing is not inactivation but the more negatively shifted activation range for BK(i) current at a given [Ca(2+)].

Syntaxin 1A interaction with the dopamine transporter promotes amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux

The soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor protein syntaxin 1A (SYN1A) interacts with and regulates the function of transmembrane proteins, including ion channels and neurotransmitter transporters. Here, we define the first 33 amino acids of the N terminus of the dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT) as the site of direct interaction with SYN1A. Amphetamine (AMPH) increases the association of SYN1A with human DAT (hDAT) in a heterologous expression system (hDAT cells) and with native DAT in murine striatal synaptosomes. Immunoprecipitation of DAT from the biotinylated fraction shows that the AMPH-induced increase in DAT/SYN1A association occurs at the plasma membrane. In a superfusion assay of DA efflux, cells overexpressing SYN1A exhibited significantly greater AMPH-induced DA release with respect to control cells. By combining the patch-clamp technique with amperometry, we measured DA release under voltage clamp. At -60 mV, a physiological resting potential, AMPH did not induce DA efflux in hDAT cells and DA neurons. In contrast, perfusion of exogenous SYN1A (3 microM) into the cell with the whole-cell pipette enabled AMPH-induced DA efflux at -60 mV in both hDAT cells and DA neurons. It has been shown recently that Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is activated by AMPH and regulates AMPH-induced DA efflux. Here, we show that AMPH-induced association between DAT and SYN1A requires CaMKII activity and that inhibition of CaMKII blocks the ability of exogenous SYN1A to promote DA efflux. These data suggest that AMPH activation of CaMKII supports DAT/SYN1A association, resulting in a mode of DAT capable of DA efflux.

Modulation of the Kv4.3 channel by syntaxin 1A

The SNARE protein syntaxin 1A (Syn1A) is known to inhibit delayed rectifier K(+) channels of the K(v)1 and K(v)2 families with heterogeneous effects on their gating properties. In this study, we explored whether Syn1A could directly modulate K(v)4.3, a rapidly inactivating K(v) channel with important roles in neuroendocrine cells and cardiac myocytes. Immunoprecipitation studies in HEK293 cells coexpressing Syn1A and K(v)4.3 revealed a direct interaction with increased trafficking to the plasma membrane without a change in channel synthesis. Paradoxically, Syn1A inhibited K(v)4.3 current density. In particular, Syn1A produced a left-shift in steady-state inactivation of K(v)4.3 without affecting either voltage dependence of activation or gating kinetics, a pattern distinct from other K(v) channels. Combined with our previous reports, our results further verify the notion that the mechanisms involved in Syn1A-K(v) interactions vary significantly between K(v) channels, thus providing a wide scope for Syn1A modulation of exocytosis and membrane excitability.