Superantigen immune stimulation activates epithelial STAT-1 and PI 3-K: PI 3-K regulation of permeability

Update on molecular diversity and multipathogenicity of staphylococcal superantigen toxins

Staphylococcal superantigen (SAg) toxins are the most notable virulence factors associated with Staphylococcus aureus, which is a pathogen associated with serious community and hospital acquired infections in humans and various diseases in animals. Recently, SAg toxins have become a superfamily with 29 types, including staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) with emetic activity, SE-like toxins (SEls) that do not induce emesis in primate models or have yet not  been tested, and toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1). SEs and SEls can be subdivided into classical types (SEA to SEE) and novel types (SEG to SElY, SE01, SE02, SEl26 and SEl27). The genes of SAg toxins are located in diverse accessory genetic elements and share certain structural and biological properties. SAg toxins are heat-stable proteins that exhibit pyrogenicity, superantigenicity and capacity to induce lethal hypersensitivity to endotoxin in humans and animals. They have multiple pathogenicities that can interfere with normal immune function of host, increase the chances of survival and transmission of pathogenic bacteria in host, consequently contribute to the occurrence and development of various infections, persistent infections or food poisoning. This review focuses on the following aspects of SAg toxins: (1) superfamily members of classic and novelty discovered staphylococcal SAgs; (2) diversity of gene locations and molecular structural characteristics; (3) biological characteristics and activities; (4) multi-pathogenicity of SAgs in animal and human diseases, including bovine mastitis, swine sepsis, abscesses and skin edema in pig, arthritis and septicemia in poultry, and nosocomial infections and food-borne diseases in humans.

The JAK-Inhibitor Tofacitinib Rescues Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Colonoids from Cytokine-Induced Barrier Dysfunction

BACKGROUND

Alterations to epithelial tight junctions can compromise the ability of the epithelium to act as a barrier between luminal contents and the underlying tissues, thereby increasing intestinal permeability, an early critical event in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Tofacitinib (Xeljanz), an orally administered pan-Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor, was recently approved for the treatment of moderate to severe ulcerative colitis. Nevertheless, the effects of tofacitinib on intestinal epithelial cell functions are largely unknown. The aim of this study was to determine if JAK inhibition by tofacitinib can rescue cytokine-induced barrier dysfunction in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs).

METHODS

T84 IECs were used to evaluate the effects of tofacitinib on JAK-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) activation, barrier permeability, and expression and localization of tight junction proteins. The impact of tofacitinib on claudin-2 promoter activity was assessed in HT-29 IECs. Tofacitinib rescue of barrier function was also tested in human colonic stem cell-derived organoids.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with tofacitinib prevented IFN-γ-induced decreases in transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and increases in 4 kDa FITC-dextran permeability (FD4), partly due to claudin-2 transcriptional regulation and restriction of ZO-1 rearrangement at tight junctions. Although tofacitinib administered after IFN-γ challenge only partially normalized TER and claudin-2 levels, FD4 permeability and ZO-1 localization were fully recovered. The IFN-γ-induced FD4 permeability in primary human colonoids was fully rescued by tofacitinib.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest differential therapeutic efficacy of tofacitinib in the rescue of pore vs leak-tight junction barrier defects and indicate a potential contribution of improved epithelial barrier function to the beneficial effects of tofacitinib in IBD patients.

T cell protein tyrosine phosphatase prevents STAT1 induction of claudin-2 expression in intestinal epithelial cells

T cell protein tyrosine phosphatase (TCPTP) dephosphorylates a number of substrates, including JAK-STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) signaling proteins, which are activated by interferon (IFN)-γ, a major proinflammatory cytokine involved in conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease. A critical function of the intestinal epithelium is formation of a selective barrier to luminal contents. The structural units of the epithelium that regulate barrier function are the tight junctions (TJs), and the protein composition of the TJ determines the tightness of the barrier. Claudin-2 is a TJ protein that increases permeability to cations and reduces transepithelial electrical resistance (TER). We previously showed that transient knockdown (KD) of TCPTP permits increased expression of claudin-2 by IFN-γ. Here, we demonstrate that the decreased TER in TCPTP-deficient epithelial cells is alleviated by STAT1 KD. Moreover, increased claudin-2 in TCPTP-deficient cells requires enhanced STAT1 activation and STAT1 binding to the CLDN2 promoter. We also show that mutation of this STAT-binding site prevents elevated CLDN2 promoter activity in TCPTP-deficient epithelial cells. In summary, we demonstrate that TCPTP protects the intestinal epithelial barrier by restricting STAT-induced claudin-2 expression. This is a potential mechanism by which loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding TCPTP may contribute to barrier defects in chronic intestinal inflammatory disease.

Microbial products induce claudin-2 to compromise gut epithelial barrier function

The epithelial barrier dysfunction is an important pathogenic feature in a number of diseases. The underlying mechanism is to be further investigated. The present study aims to investigate the role of tight junction protein claudin-2 (Cldn2) in the compromising epithelial barrier function. In this study, the expression of Cldn2 in the epithelial layer of mice and patients with food allergy was observed by immunohistochemistry. The induction of Cldn2 was carried out with a cell culture model. The Cldn2-facilitated antigen internalization was observed by confocal microscopy. The epithelial barrier function in the gut epithelial monolayer was assessed by recording the transepithelial resistance and assessing the permeability to a macromolecular tracer. The results showed that the positive immune staining of Cldn2 was observed in the epithelial layer of the small intestine that was weakly stained in naïve control mice, and strongly stained in sensitized mice as well as patients with food allergy. Exposure to cholera toxin or Staphylococcal enterotoxin B induced the expression of Cldn2 in HT-29 or T84 cells. Cldn2 could bind protein antigen to form complexes to facilitate the antigen transport across the epithelial barrier. Blocking Cldn2 prevented the allergen-related hypersensitivity the intestine. We conclude that the tight junction protein Cldn2 is involved in the epithelial barrier dysfunction.

Interferon-γ-induced increases in intestinal epithelial macromolecular permeability requires the Src kinase Fyn

Interferon-γ (IFNγ) is an important immunoregulatory cytokine that can also decrease intestinal epithelial barrier function. Little is known about the intracellular signalling events immediately subsequent to IFNγ/IFNγ receptor interaction that mediate increases in epithelial permeability; data that could be used to ablate this effect of IFNγ while leaving its immunostimulatory effects intact. This study assessed the potential involvement of Src family kinases in IFNγ-induced increases in epithelial permeability using confluent filter-grown monolayers of the human colon-derived T84 epithelial cell line. Inhibition of Src kinase with the pharmacologic PP1 and use of Fyn kinase-specific siRNA significantly reduced IFNγ-induced increases in epithelial permeability as gauged by translocation of noninvasive E. coli (HB101 strain) and flux of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) across monolayers of T84 cells. However, the drop in transepithelial resistance elicited by IFNγ was not affected by either treatment. Immunoblotting revealed that IFNγ activated the transcription factor STAT5 in T84 cells, and immunoprecipitation studies identified an IFNγ-inducible interaction between STAT5b and the PI3K regulatory subunit p85α through formation of a complex requiring the adaptor molecule Gab2. siRNA targeting STAT5b and Gab2 reduced IFNγ-induced increases in epithelial permeability and phosphorylation of PI3K(p85α). PP1 and Fyn siRNA reduced IFNγ-induced PI3K activity (indicated by decreased phospho-Akt) and the formation of the STAT5b/PI3K(p85α) complex. Collectively, the results suggest the formation of a Fyn-dependent STAT5b/Gab2/PI3K complex that links IFNγ to PI3K signalling and the regulation of macromolecular permeability in a model enteric epithelium.

Interferon-gamma regulation of intestinal epithelial permeability

The maintenance and regulation of the barrier function of the epithelial lining of the intestine are important homeostatic events, serving to allow selective absorption from the gut lumen while simultaneously limiting the access of bacteria into the mucosa. Interferon-gamma is a pleiotrophic cytokine produced predominantly by natural kill cells and CD4+ T cells that under normal circumstances, and particularly during infection or inflammation, will be a component of the intestinal milieu. Use of colon-derived epithelial cell lines and, to a less extent, murine in vivo analyses, have revealed that interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) can increase epithelial permeability as gauged by markers of paracellular permeability and bacterial transcytosis, with at least a portion of the bacteria using the transcellular permeation pathway. In this review, we describe the main characteristics of epithelial permeability and then focus on the ability of IFN-gamma to increase epithelial permeability, and the mechanism(s) thereof.

Staphylococcal enterotoxins

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a Gram positive bacterium that is carried by about one third of the general population and is responsible for common and serious diseases. These diseases include food poisoning and toxic shock syndrome, which are caused by exotoxins produced by S. aureus. Of the more than 20 Staphylococcal enterotoxins, SEA and SEB are the best characterized and are also regarded as superantigens because of their ability to bind to class II MHC molecules on antigen presenting cells and stimulate large populations of T cells that share variable regions on the β chain of the T cell receptor. The result of this massive T cell activation is a cytokine bolus leading to an acute toxic shock. These proteins are highly resistant to denaturation, which allows them to remain intact in contaminated food and trigger disease outbreaks. A recognized problem is the emergence of multi-drug resistant strains of S. aureus and these are a concern in the clinical setting as they are a common cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in hospitalized patients. In this review, we provide an overview of the current understanding of these proteins.

Mechanism of interferon-gamma-induced increase in T84 intestinal epithelial tight junction

Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) is an important proinflammatory cytokine that plays a central role in the intestinal inflammatory process of inflammatory bowel disease. IFN-gamma induced disturbance of the intestinal epithelial tight junction (TJ) barrier has been postulated to be an important mechanism contributing to intestinal inflammation. The intracellular mechanisms that mediate the IFN-gamma induced increase in intestinal TJ permeability remain unclear. The aim of this study was to examine the role of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) pathway in the regulation of the IFN-gamma induced increase in intestinal TJ permeability using the T84 intestinal epithelial cell line. IFN-gamma caused an increase in T84 intestinal epithelial TJ permeability and depletion of TJ protein, occludin. The IFN-gamma induced increase in TJ permeability and alteration in occludin protein was associated with rapid activation of PI3-K; and inhibition of PI3-K activation prevented the IFN-gamma induced effects. IFN-gamma also caused a delayed but more prolonged activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB); inhibition of NF-kappaB also prevented the increase in T84 TJ permeability and alteration in occludin expression. The IFN-gamma induced activation of NF-kappaB was mediated by a cross-talk with PI3-K pathway. In conclusion, the IFN-gamma induced increase in T84 TJ permeability and alteration in occludin protein expression were mediated by the PI3-K pathway. These results show for the first time that the IFN-gamma modulation of TJ protein and TJ barrier function is regulated by a cross-talk between PI3-K and NF-kappaB pathways.

Mechanism of cytokine modulation of epithelial tight junction barrier

Cytokines play a crucial role in the modulation of inflammatory response in the gastrointestinal tract. Pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin-1beta?IL-1beta?, and interleukin-12 are essential in mediating the inflammatory response, while anti-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-beta are important in the attenuation or containment of inflammatory process. It is increasingly recognized that cytokines have an important physiological and pathological effect on intestinal tight junction (TJ) barrier. Consistent with their known pro-inflammatory activities, pro-inflammatory cytokines cause a disturbance in intestinal TJ barrier, allowing increased tissue penetration of luminal antigens. Recent studies indicate that the inhibition of cytokine induced increase in intestinal TJ permeability has an important protective effect against intestinal mucosal damage and development of intestinal inflammation. In this review, the effects of various pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines on intestinal TJ barrier and the progress into the mechanisms that mediate the cytokine modulation of intestinal TJ barrier are reviewed.

Expression of HBX, an oncoprotein of hepatitis B virus, blocks reoviral oncolysis of hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Although reovirus has been used in tests as a potential cancer therapeutic agent against a variety of cancer cells, its application to hepatocellular carcinoma cells, in which the hepatitis B virus (HBV) X (HBX) protein of HBV plays a primary role, has not yet been explored. Here, we describe experiments in which we use reovirus to treat Chang liver carcinoma cells expressing either a vector only (Chang-vec) or a vector encoding HBX protein (Chang-HBX). Although Chang-vec cells readily support reoviral proliferation and undergo apoptosis, Chang-HBX cells are highly resistant to reoviral infection and virus-induced apoptosis, even though HBX protein induces activation of Ras and inactivation of PKR, which are normally thought to enhance reoviral oncolysis. The resistance of Chang-HBX cells to reovirus may instead be explained by HBX-induced downregulation of death receptor 5 and activation of Stat1. Phosphorylated Stat1 activates interferon (IFN)-stimulated regulatory element (ISRE)- and IFN-gamma-activated sequence (GAS)-mediated transcription, leading to the production of IFN-beta, whereas the reduced expression of Stat1 with its siRNA results in a decrease in IFN-beta production, by which Chang-HBX cells eventually succumb to reovirus infection. This result further indicates that HBX induces the establishment of an antiviral state through Stat1 activation. Thus, it appears that active Ras does not override the antiviral effect mediated by the activation of Stat1. Accordingly, we report that HBX, an oncoprotein of HBV, can prevent reoviral oncolysis of hepatocellular carcinoma. This suggests there may be limits to the practical application of reovirus in the treatment of human cancers already expressing other oncoviral proteins.

Convergence of alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-activated pathways for anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammation: central role for JAK2 activation of STAT3 and NF-kappaB

Our laboratories have previously identified the alpha7 nAChR-JAK2 pathway as playing a central role in nicotine-induced neuroprotection. We have also reported that the angiotensin II (Ang II) AT(2) receptor induced activation of SHP-1 induces the tyrosine dephosphorylation of JAK2 that results in a complete neutralization of the alpha7 nAChR-JAK2 pro-survival cascade. In this study, we investigated the effects of inhibiting the alpha7 nAChR-JAK2 pro-survival cascade on the nicotine-induced production of the survival factor Bcl-2 and the transcriptional activation of NF-kappaB, AP-1, STAT1, STAT3, and STAT5. We report that nicotine induced the production of Bcl-2 and increased the transcriptional activation of NF-kappaB, AP-1, STAT1, and STAT3, and with the exception of AP-1, the other transcription factors (NF-kappaB, STAT1, and STAT3) were significantly reduced by JAK2 inhibition. We also demonstrate that, via transfection of either Bcl-2 antisense or NF-kappaB, STAT1 and STAT3 transcription factor decoys oligodeoxyribonucleotides into PC12 cells, nicotine induces its neuroprotection in PC12 cells via activation of the alpha7 nAChR-JAK2-(NF-kappaB; STAT3)-Bcl-2 pro-survival pathway. Finally, the neuroprotective nicotine-induced production of Bcl-2 appears to fully counteract the Abeta (1-42)-induced apoptosis of PC12 cells by blocking Abeta (1-42)-induced mitochondrial release of cytosolic cytochrome C.

Cellular mechanisms of mainstream cigarette smoke-induced lung epithelial tight junction permeability changes in vitro

Mainstream cigarette smoke increases the permeability of human airways; however, the mechanism for this increased permeability is poorly defined. Tight junctions between adjacent epithelial cells constitute the physiological barrier to fluid and macromolecules in epithelium. These structures are highly regulated by phosphorylation and their association with the cytoskeleton. The goal of these studies was to identify the signal transduction pathways that regulate smoke-induced permeability. Using a physiologically relevant air-liquid interface exposure system, electrically tight monolayers of the human bronchial epithelial cell-line Calu-3 were exposed to fresh, whole mainstream cigarette smoke. This exposure results in a regulated, dose-dependent loss of epithelial barrier function in the lung epithelial monolayers. With cigarette smoke exposure, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) is decreased and albumin flux is increased, indicating a loss in barrier function to ions and macromolecules, respectively; however, both largely recover in 30 min. Smoke-induced losses of macromolecular barrier function are the result of multicellular junctional reorganization, resulting in increased leak volume rather than leak frequency. Inhibiting Rho kinase (ROCK) significantly reduces the smoke-induced permeability to both ions and macromolecules, while inhibiting protein tyrosine kinases (PTK) only reduces smoke-induced macromolecular permeability. Interestingly, inhibiting myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) exacerbates smoke-induced permeability, indicating that MLCK and ROCK have opposing regulatory roles. Our results demonstrate that the smoke-induced loss of epithelial barrier function in human bronchial epithelium is a regulated process rather than a cytotoxic response. Additionally, our results indicate that activation of PTK and ROCK and inactivation of MLCK contribute to the increased airway permeability caused by mainstream cigarette smoke.

Probiotics and commensals reverse TNF-alpha- and IFN-gamma-induced dysfunction in human intestinal epithelial cells

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Commensal bacteria are crucial for the development of the mucosal immune system. Probiotics are commensals with special characteristics and may protect mucosal surfaces against pathogens. Pathogens cause significant phenotypic alterations in infected epithelial cells, and probiotics reverse these deleterious responses. We hypothesized that probiotics and/or commensals may also reverse epithelial damage produced by cytokines.

METHODS

Human intestinal epithelial cells were exposed basolaterally to interferon (IFN)-gamma (10(3) U/mL) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (10 ng/mL) for up to 48 hours and assessed for ion transport, transepithelial resistance (TER), and epithelial permeability in the presence or absence of probiotics (Streptococcus thermophilus [ST] and Lactobacillus acidophilus [LA]), or the commensal, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BT).

RESULTS

Agonist-stimulated chloride secretion was inhibited by IFN-gamma, an effect prevented by ST/LA or BT. The ability of ST/LA or BT to restore Cl(-) secretion was blocked by inhibitors of p38 MAPK, ERK1, 2, and PI3K. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and the NKCC1 cotransporter were down-regulated by IFN-gamma, and ST/LA pretreatment reversed this effect. Both TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma significantly reduced TER and increased epithelial permeability, effects prevented by ST/LA or BT. A Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor synergistically potentiated effects of ST/LA or BT on TER and permeability, but p38, ERK1, 2, or PI3K inhibition did not. Finally, only probiotic-treated epithelial cells exposed to cytokines showed reduced activation of SOCS3 and STAT1,3.

CONCLUSIONS

Deleterious effects of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma on epithelial function are prevented by probiotic, and to a lesser extent, commensal pretreatment. These data extend the spectrum of effects of such bacteria on intestinal epithelial function and may justify their use in inflammatory disorders.

Staphylococcal enterotoxin A modulates intracellular Ca2+ signal pathway in human intestinal epithelial cells

We demonstrate here that staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) induces an increase in intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) in human intestinal epithelial cells and the [Ca2+]i is released from intracellular stores. SEA-induced increase of [Ca2+]i was clearly inhibited by treatment with a nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors, N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine and guanidine. Intestinal epithelial cells express endothelial NOS in resting cell condition, and express inducible NOS after stimulating with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. TNF-alpha-pretreated cells showed a significant increase in [Ca2+]i that was also inhibited by the NOS inhibitor. These results suggest that SEA modulated [Ca2+]i signal is dependent on NOS expression in human intestinal epithelial cells.

Green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate blocks epithelial barrier dysfunction provoked by IFN-gamma but not by IL-4

A characteristic of many enteropathies is increased epithelial permeability, a potentially pathophysiological event that can be evoked by T helper (Th)-1 (i.e., IFN-gamma) and Th2 (i.e., IL-4) cytokines and bacterial infection [e.g., enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC)]. The green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) has immunosuppressive properties, and we hypothesized that it would ameliorate the increased epithelial permeability induced by IFN-gamma, IL-4, and/or EPEC. EGCG, but not the related epigallocatechin, completely prevented the increase in epithelial (i.e., T84 cell monolayer) permeability caused by IFN-gamma exposure as gauged by transepithelial resistance and horseradish peroxidase flux; EGCG did not alleviate the barrier disruption induced by IL-4 or EPEC. IFN-gamma-treated T84 and THP-1 (monocytic cell line) cells displayed STAT1 activation (tyrosine phosphorylation on Western blot analysis, DNA binding on EMSA) and upregulation of interferon response factor-1 mRNA, a STAT1-dependent gene. All three events were inhibited by EGCG pretreatment. Aurintricarboxylic acid also blocked IFN-gamma-induced STAT1 activation, but it did not prevent the increase in epithelial permeability. Additionally, pharmacological blockade of MAPK signaling did not affect IFN-gamma-induced epithelial barrier dysfunction. Thus, as a potential adjunct anti-inflammatory agent, EGCG can block STAT1-dependent events in gut epithelia and monocytes and prevent IFN-gamma-induced increased epithelial permeability. The latter event is both a STAT1- and MAPK-independent event.

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 disrupts Stat1-mediated gamma interferon signal transduction in epithelial cells

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7 is a clinically important bacterial enteropathogen that manipulates a variety of host cell signal transduction cascades to establish infection. However, the effect of EHEC O157:H7 on Jak/Stat signaling is unknown. To define the effect of EHEC infection on epithelial gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-Stat1 signaling, human T84 and HEp-2 epithelial cells were infected with EHEC O157:H7 and then stimulated with recombinant human IFN-gamma. Cells were also infected with different EHEC strains, heat-killed EHEC, enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) O127:H6, and the commensal strain E. coli HB101. Nuclear and whole-cell protein extracts were prepared and were assayed by an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and by Western blotting, respectively. Cells were also processed for immunofluorescence to detect the subcellular localization of Stat1. The EMSA revealed inducible, but not constitutive, Stat1 activation upon IFN-gamma treatment of both cell lines. The EMSA also showed that 6 h of EHEC O157:H7 infection, but not 30 min of EHEC O157:H7 infection, prevented subsequent Stat1 DNA binding induced by IFN-gamma, whereas infection with EPEC did not. Immunoblotting showed that infection with EHEC, but not infection with EPEC, eliminated IFN-gamma-induced Stat1 tyrosine phosphorylation in both dose- and time-dependent fashions and disrupted inducible protein expression of the Stat1-dependent gene interferon regulatory factor 1. Immunofluorescence revealed that EHEC infection did not prevent nuclear accumulation of Stat1 after IFN-gamma treatment. Also, Stat1 tyrosine phosphorylation was suppressed by different EHEC isolates, including intimin-, type III secretion- and plasmid-deficient strains, but not by HB101 and heat-killed EHEC. These findings indicate the novel disruption of host cell signaling caused by EHEC infection but not by EPEC infection.