Free nitric oxide diffusion in the bronchial microcirculation

Effect of birth rank, and placentome subtype on expression of genes involved in placental nutrient transport in sheep

Placental function is a key determinant of fetal growth and development that can be influenced by maternal and fetal environmental factors. The molecular mechanisms by which the placenta senses and responds to environmental cues are poorly understood. This exploratory study aimed to characterize the effect of birth rank (single vs. twin) and placentome morphologic subtype on expression of genes involved in nutrient transport, angiogenesis, immunity and stress response. Cotyledonary tissue was collected from type A, B and C placentomes from five single and six twin fetuses at 140 days of gestation. GLUT1 and GLUT3 were the most highly expressed genes consistent with the high demand for glucose to support fetal growth. Expression of BCKDHβ and IGF-2 was 1.3- and 1.5-fold higher, respectively, and PCYT1A was 3-fold lower in singles compared to twins (P < 0.05) while no other differences in gene expression were observed between birth ranks. Expression of EAAT2 and LAT2 was higher while PCYT1A was lower in A compared to B type cotyledons. Expression of GUCY1B1/3 and IGF-1 was higher while CD98 and LAT2 were lower in type B compared to C cotyledons (P < 0.05). Compared to type C cotyledons, expression of EAAT2, IGF-1, IGF-2, LAT1 was higher, while TEK was lower in type A cotyledons. The effects of birth rank on placental gene expression in this study indicated that placental nutrient transport and/or function differs between single and twin pregnancies in sheep. Differences in gene expression between the placentome subtypes suggests that changes in placentome morphology are associated with shifts in amino acid transport and metabolism, oxidative stress and angiogenesis and/or blood flow. This study highlights that placental gene expression differs in response to birth rank and placentome morphologic subtype which suggests that both maternal and fetal factors may influence placental function in sheep. These associations provide insights into gene pathways for more targeted future investigations as well as potential adaptations to improve placental efficiency to support fetal growth in twin pregnancies.

Impact of stochastic fluctuations in the cell free layer on nitric oxide bioavailability

A plasma stratum (cell free layer or CFL) generated by flowing blood interposed between the red blood cell (RBC) core and the endothelium affects generation, consumption, and transport of nitric oxide (NO) in the microcirculation. CFL width is a principal factor modulating NO diffusion and vessel wall shears stress development, thus significantly affecting NO bioavailability. Since the CFL is bounded by the surface formed by the chaotically moving RBCs and the stationary but spatially non-uniform endothelial surface, its width fluctuates randomly in time and space. We analyze how these stochastic fluctuations affect NO transport in the CFL and NO bioavailability. We show that effects due to random boundaries do not average to zero and lead to an increase of NO bioavailability. Since endothelial production of NO is significantly enhanced by temporal variability of wall shear stress, we posit that stochastic shear stress stimulation of the endothelium yields the baseline continual production of NO by the endothelium. The proposed stochastic formulation captures the natural continuous and microscopic variability, whose amplitude is measurable and is of the scale of cellular dimensions. It provides a realistic model of NO generation and regulation.

Modeling gas phase nitric oxide release in lung epithelial cells

Nitric oxide (NO) is present in exhaled breath and is generally considered to be a noninvasive marker of airway inflammation, and is thus of particular relevance to monitoring asthma. NO is produced when L-arginine is converted to L-citrulline by NO synthase (NOS); however, L-arginine is also the substrate for arginase and both enzymes are upregulated in asthma. Recent reports have speculated that enhanced expression of one or both enzymes could lead to a limitation in substrate availability, and hence impact downstream targets or markers such as exhaled NO. The non-linear nature and vastly different kinetics of the enzymes make predictions difficult, particularly over the wide range of enzyme activity between baseline and inflammation. In this study, we developed a steady state model of L-arginine transmembrane transport, NO production, diffusion, and gas phase NO release from lung epithelial cells. We validated our model with experimental results of gas phase NO release and intracellular l-arginine concentration in A549 cells, and then performed a sensitivity analysis to determine relative impact of each enzyme on NO production. Our model predicts intracellular L-arginine and gas phase NO release over a wide range of initial extracellular L-arginine concentrations following stimulation with cytomix (10ng/ml TNF-α, IL-1β, and INF-γ). Relative sensitivity analysis demonstrates that enhanced arginase activity has little impact on l-arginine bioavailability for NOS. In addition, NOS activity is the dominant parameter which impacts gas phase NO release.

Modulation of NO bioavailability by temporal variation of the cell-free layer width in small arterioles

The cell-free layer exhibits dynamic characteristics in the time domain that may be capable of altering nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability in small arterioles. However, this effect has not been fully elucidated. This study utilized a computational model on NO transport to predict how temporal variations in the layer width could modulate NO bioavailability in the arterioles. Data on the layer width was acquired from high-speed video recordings in arterioles (ID = 48.4 ± 1.8 μm) of the rat cremaster muscle. We found that when wall shear stress response was not considered, the layer variability could lead to a slight decrease (1.6-6.6%) in NO bioavailability that was independent of transient changes in NO scavenging rate. Conversely, the transient response in wall shear stress and NO production rate played a dominant role in reversing this decline such that a significant augmentation (5.3-21.0%) in NO bioavailability was found with increasing layer variability from 24.6 to 63.8%. This study highlighted the importance of the temporal changes in wall shear stress and NO production rate caused by the layer width variations in prediction of NO bioavailability in arterioles.

Venomotion modulates lymphatic pumping in the bat wing

In skin, it is believed that lymph must be pumped by intrinsic contraction of lymphatic muscle, since investigators have not considered that cyclical dilation of venules could compress adjacent lymphatic microvessels. Because lymphatic vessels are sensitive to stretch, we hypothesized that venomotion not only can cause extrinsic pumping of lymph in nearby lymphatic vessels, but also can stimulate intrinsic contractions. Bat wing venules have pronounced venomotion and are in close proximity to lymphatic microvessels, and can be studied noninvasively without the confounding effects of anesthesia, surgical trauma, or contrast agents. Therefore, the interaction between venules and their paired lymphatic vessels in unanesthetized Pallid bats (n = 8) was evaluated by recording the diameters of both vessels. Four sets of observations suggested that lymphatic and venous contractions were partially coupled. First, venous dilation and contraction produced a significant change in lymphatic microvascular cross-sectional area. Second, lymphatic microvascular contractions were immediately preceded by a change in venular diameter. Third, venular and lymphatic vessel contraction frequencies were positively correlated (r = 0.75). Fourth, time delays between peak venular systole and onset of lymphatic microvascular contraction were negatively correlated with venomotion magnitude (r = -0.55) and velocity (r = -0.64). In a separate experiment, inhibiting venomotion resulted in a 54.3 +/- 20.0% (n = 8) decrease in lymphatic contraction frequency. Furthermore, 85.7% (n = 56) of lymphatic vessels switch sides and lie adjacent to arterioles when venules were too small to exhibit venomotion. These results are consistent with both extrinsic pumping of lymph and stretch-induced lymphatic contraction and imply that intrinsic and extrinsic pumping can be coupled.

Febrigenic signaling to the brain does not involve nitric oxide

1. The involvement of peripheral nitric oxide (NO) in febrigenic signaling to the brain has been proposed because peripherally administered NO synthase (NOS) inhibitors attenuate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced fever in rodents. However, how the unstable molecule of NO can reach the brain to trigger fever is unclear. It is also unclear whether NOS inhibitors attenuate fever by blocking febrigenic signaling or, alternatively, by suppressing thermogenesis in brown fat. 2. Male Wistar rats were chronically implanted with jugular catheters; their colonic and tail skin temperatures (T(c) and T(sk)) were monitored. 3. Study 1 was designed to determine whether the relatively stable, physiologically relevant forms of NO, that is, S-nitrosoalbumin (SNA) and S-nitrosoglutathione (SNG), are pyrogenic and whether they enhance LPS fever. At a neutral ambient temperature (T(a)) of 31 degrees C, afebrile or LPS (1 microg kg(-1), i.v.)-treated rats were infused i.v. with SNA (0.34 or 4.1 micromol kg(-1); the controls received NaNO(2) and albumin) or SNG (10 or 60 micromol kg(-1); the controls received glutathione). T(c) of SNA- or SNG-treated rats never exceeded that of the controls. 4. In Study 2, we tested whether the known fever-attenuating effect of the NOS inhibitor N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) at a subneutral T(a) (when fever is brought about by thermogenesis) also occurs at a neutral T(a) (when fever is brought about by skin vasoconstriction). At a subneutral T(a) of 24 degrees C, L-NAME (2.5 mg kg(-1), i.v.) attenuated LPS (10 microg kg(-1), i.v.) fever, presumably by inhibiting thermogenesis. At 31 degrees C, L-NAME enhanced LPS fever by augmenting skin vasoconstriction (T(sk) fall). 5. In summary, both SNA and SNG had no pyrogenic effect of their own and failed to enhance LPS fever; peripheral L-NAME attenuated only fever brought about by increased thermogenesis. It is concluded that NO is uninvolved in febrigenic signaling to the brain.

Contribution of nNOS- and eNOS-derived NO to microvascular smooth muscle NO exposure

Nitric oxide (NO) plays an important role in autocrine and paracrine manner in numerous physiological processes, including regulation of blood pressure and blood flow, platelet aggregation, and leukocyte adhesion. In vascular wall, most of the bioavailable NO is believed to derive from endothelial cell NO synthase (eNOS). Recently, neuronal NOS (nNOS) has been identified as a source of NO in the vicinity of microvessels and has been shown to participate in vascular function. Thus NO can be produced and transported to the vascular smooth muscle cells from 1). endothelial cells and 2). perivascular nerve fibers, mast cells, and other nNOS-containing sources. In this study, a mathematical model of NO diffusion-reaction in a cylindrical arteriolar segment was formulated. The model quantifies the relative contribution of these NO sources and the smooth muscle availability of NO in a tissue containing an arteriolar blood vessel. The results indicate that a source of NO derived through nNOS in the perivascular region can be a significant contributor to smooth muscle NO. Predicted smooth muscle NO concentrations are as high as 430 nM, which is consistent with reported experimental measurements ( approximately 400 nM). In addition, we used the model to analyze the smooth muscle NO availability in 1). eNOS and nNOS knockout experiments, 2). the presence of myoglobin, and 3). the presence of cell-free Hb, e.g., Hb-based oxygen carriers. The results show that NO release by nNOS would significantly affect available smooth muscle NO. Further experimental and theoretical studies are required to account for distribution of NOS isoforms and determine NO availability in vasculatures of different tissues.

A theoretical model of nitric oxide transport in arterioles: frequency- vs. amplitude-dependent control of cGMP formation

Nitric oxide (NO) plays many important physiological roles, including the regulation of vascular smooth muscle tone. In response to hemodynamic or agonist stimuli, endothelial cells produce NO, which can diffuse to smooth muscle where it activates soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), leading to cGMP formation and smooth muscle relaxation. The close proximity of red blood cells suggests, however, that a significant amount of NO released will be scavenged by blood, and thus the issue of bioavailability of endothelium-derived NO to smooth muscle has been investigated experimentally and theoretically. We formulated a mathematical model for NO transport in an arteriole to test the hypothesis that transient, burst-like NO production can facilitate efficient NO delivery to smooth muscle and reduce NO scavenging by blood. The model simulations predict that 1) the endothelium can maintain a physiologically significant amount of NO in smooth muscle despite the presence of NO scavengers such as hemoglobin and myoglobin; 2) under certain conditions, transient NO release presents a more efficient way for activating sGC and it can increase cGMP formation severalfold; and 3) frequency-rather than amplitude-dependent control of cGMP formation is possible. This suggests that it is the frequency of NO bursts and perhaps the frequency of Ca(2+) oscillations in endothelial cells that may limit cGMP formation and regulate vascular tone. The proposed hypothesis suggests a new functional role for Ca(2+) oscillations in endothelial cells. Further experimentation is needed to test whether and under what conditions in silico predictions occur in vivo.