A method for noninvasive longitudinal measurements of [Ca2+] in arterioles of hypertensive optical biosensor mice

A Novel Single-Color FRET Sensor for Rho-Kinase Reveals Calcium-Dependent Activation of RhoA and ROCK

Ras homolog family member A (RhoA) acts as a signaling hub in many cellular processes, including cytoskeletal dynamics, division, migration, and adhesion. RhoA activity is tightly spatiotemporally controlled, but whether downstream effectors share these activation dynamics is unknown. We developed a novel single-color FRET biosensor to measure Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) activity with high spatiotemporal resolution in live cells. We report the validation of the Rho-Kinase Activity Reporter (RhoKAR) biosensor. RhoKAR activation was specific to ROCK activity and was insensitive to PKA activity. We then assessed the mechanisms of ROCK activation in mouse fibroblasts. Increasing intracellular calcium with ionomycin increased RhoKAR activity and depleting intracellular calcium with EGTA decreased RhoKAR activity. We also investigated the signaling intermediates in this process. Blocking calmodulin or CaMKII prevented calcium-dependent activation of ROCK. These results indicate that ROCK activity is increased by calcium in fibroblasts and that this activation occurs downstream of CaM/CaMKII.

The counterbalance of endothelial glycocalyx and high wall shear stress to low-density lipoprotein concentration polarization in mouse ear skin arterioles

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Atherosclerosis preferentially occurs at regions in arterial branching, curvature, and stenosis, which may be explained by the geometric predilection of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) concentration polarization that has been investigated in major arteries in previous studies. Whether this also happens in arterioles remains unknown.

METHODS

Herein, a radially non-uniform distribution of LDL particles and a heterogeneous endothelial glycocalyx layer in the mouse ear arterioles, as shown by fluorescein isothiocyanate labeled wheat germ agglutinin (WGA-FITC), were successfully observed by a non-invasive two-photon laser-scanning microscopy (TPLSM) technique. The stagnant film theory was applied as the fitting function to evaluate LDL concentration polarization in arterioles.

RESULTS

The concentration polarization rate (CPR, the ratio of the number of polarized cases to that of total cases) in the inner walls of curved and branched arterioles was 22% and 31% higher than the outer counterparts, respectively. Results from the binary logistic regression and multiple linear regression analysis showed that endothelial glycocalyx thickness increases CPR and the thickness of the concentration polarization layer (CPL). Flow field computation indicates no obvious disturbances or vortex in modeled arterioles with different geometries and the mean wall shear stress is about 7.7-9.0 Pa.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest a geometric predilection of LDL concentration polarization in arterioles for the first time, and the existence of an endothelial glycocalyx, acting together with a relatively high wall shear stress in arterioles, may explain to some extent why atherosclerosis rarely occurs in these regions.

Mathematical modeling and biochemical analysis support partially ordered calmodulin-myosin light chain kinase binding

Activation of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) by calcium ions (Ca2+) and calmodulin (CaM) plays an important role in numerous cellular functions including vascular smooth muscle contraction and cellular motility. Despite extensive biochemical analysis, aspects of the mechanism of activation remain controversial, and competing theoretical models have been proposed for the binding of Ca2+ and CaM to MLCK. The models are analytically solvable for an equilibrium steady state and give rise to distinct predictions that hold regardless of the numerical values assigned to parameters. These predictions form the basis of a recently proposed, multi-part experimental strategy for model discrimination. Here we implement this strategy by measuring CaM-MLCK binding using an in vitro FRET system. Interpretation of binding data in light of the mathematical models suggests a partially ordered mechanism for binding CaM to MLCK. Complementary data collected using orthogonal approaches that assess CaM-MLCK binding further support this conclusion.

Visualization of Spatially-Controlled Vasospasm by Sympathetic Nerve-Mediated ROCK Activation

Contraction of vascular smooth muscle is regulated primarily by calcium concentration and secondarily by ROCK activity within the cells. In contrast to the wealth of information regarding regulation of calcium concentration, little is known about the spatiotemporal regulation of ROCK activity in live blood vessels. Here, we report ROCK activation in subcutaneous arterioles in a transgenic mouse line that expresses a genetically encoded ROCK biosensor based on the principle of Fӧrster resonance energy transfer by two-photon excitation in vivo imaging. Rapid vasospasm was induced upon laser ablation of arterioles, concomitant with a transient increase in calcium concentration in arteriolar smooth muscles. Unlike the increase in calcium concentration, vasoconstriction and ROCK activation continued for several minutes after irradiation. Both the ROCK inhibitor, fasudil, and the ganglionic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor blocker, hexamethonium, inhibited laser-induced ROCK activation and reduced the duration of vasospasm at the segments distant from the irradiated point. These observations suggest that vasoconstriction is initially triggered by a rapid surge of cytoplasmic calcium and then maintained by sympathetic nerve-mediated ROCK activation.

Homotransfer of FRET Reporters for Live Cell Imaging

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between fluorophores of the same species was recognized in the early to mid-1900s, well before modern heterotransfer applications. Recently, homotransfer FRET principles have re-emerged in biosensors that incorporate genetically encoded fluorescent proteins. Homotransfer offers distinct advantages over the standard heterotransfer FRET method, some of which are related to the use of fluorescence polarization microscopy to quantify FRET between two fluorophores of identical color. These include enhanced signal-to-noise, greater compatibility with other optical sensors and modulators, and new design strategies based upon the clustering or dimerization of singly-labeled sensors. Here, we discuss the theoretical basis for measuring homotransfer using polarization microscopy, procedures for data collection and processing, and we review the existing genetically-encoded homotransfer biosensors.

Imaging sympathetic neurogenic Ca2+ signaling in blood vessels

We review the information that has been provided by optical imaging experiments directed at understanding the role and effects of sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) in the functioning of blood vessels. Earlier studies utilized electric field stimulation of nerve terminals (EFS) in isolated arteries and vascular tissues (ex vivo) to elicit SNA, but more recently, imaging studies have been conducted in vivo, enabling the study of SNA in truly physiological conditions. Ex vivo: In vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) of isolated arteries, the three sympathetic neurotransmitters, norepinephrine (NE), ATP and neuropeptide Y (NPY), elicit or modulate distinct patterns of Ca²⁺ signaling, as revealed by confocal imaging of exogenous fluorescent Ca²⁺ indicators. Purinergic junctional Ca²⁺ transients (jCaTs) arise from Ca²⁺ influx during excitatory junction potentials (eJPs), and are associated with the initial neurogenic contraction. Adrenergic Ca²⁺ waves and oscillations cause contraction while SNA-induced endothelial Ca²⁺ 'pulsars' cause relaxation. In vivo: optical biosensor mice, which express genetically encoded Ca²⁺ indicators (GECI's) specifically in smooth muscle, combined with non-invasive imaging techniques has enabled imaging SNA-induced Ca²⁺ signaling and arterial diameter in vivo. SNA induces Ca²⁺ oscillations in intact arteries. [Ca²⁺] of arterial smooth muscle cells increased in hypertension, in association with increased SNA. High resolution imaging has revealed local sympathetic, neurogenic Ca²⁺ signaling within smooth muscle and endothelial cells of the vasculature. The ongoing development of in vivo imaging together with an expanding availability of different biosensor animals promises to enable the further assessment of SNA and its effects in the vasculature of living animals.

A murine toolbox for imaging the neurovascular unit

The neurovascular unit (NVU) coordinates many essential functions in the brain including blood flow control, nutrient delivery, and maintenance of BBB integrity. These functions are the result of a cellular and molecular interplay that we are just beginning to understand. Cells of the NVU can now be investigated in the intact brain through the combined use of high-resolution in vivo imaging and non-invasive molecular tools to observe and manipulate cell function. Mouse lines that target transgene expression to cells of the NVU will be of great value in future work. However, a detailed evaluation of target cell specificity and expression pattern within the brain is required for many existing lines. The purpose of this review was to catalog mouse lines available to cerebrovascular biologists and to discuss their utility and limitations in future imaging studies.

PC-PLC/sphingomyelin synthase activity plays a central role in the development of myogenic tone in murine resistance arteries

Myogenic tone is an intrinsic property of the vasculature that contributes to blood pressure control and tissue perfusion. Earlier investigations assigned a key role in myogenic tone to phospholipase C (PLC) and its products, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). Here, we used the PLC inhibitor, U-73122, and two other, specific inhibitors of PLC subtypes (PI-PLC and PC-PLC) to delineate the role of PLC in myogenic tone of pressurized murine mesenteric arteries. U-73122 inhibited depolarization-induced contractions (high external K(+) concentration), thus confirming reports of nonspecific actions of U-73122 and its limited utility for studies of myogenic tone. Edelfosine, a specific inhibitor of PI-PLC, did not affect depolarization-induced contractions but modulated myogenic tone. Because PI-PLC produces IP3, we investigated the effect of blocking IP3 receptor-mediated Ca(2+) release on myogenic tone. Incubation of arteries with xestospongin C did not affect tone, consistent with the virtual absence of Ca(2+) waves in arteries with myogenic tone. D-609, an inhibitor of PC-PLC and sphingomyelin synthase, strongly inhibited myogenic tone and had no effect on depolarization-induced contraction. D-609 appeared to act by lowering cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration to levels below those that activate contraction. Importantly, incubation of pressurized arteries with a membrane-permeable analog of DAG induced vasoconstriction. The results therefore mandate a reexamination of the signaling pathways activated by the Bayliss mechanism. Our results suggest that PI-PLC and IP3 are not required in maintaining myogenic tone, but DAG, produced by PC-PLC and/or SM synthase, is likely through multiple mechanisms to increase Ca(2+) entry and promote vasoconstriction.

Intravital microscopic methods to evaluate anti-inflammatory effects and signaling mechanisms evoked by hydrogen sulfide

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an endogenous gaseous signaling molecule with potent anti-inflammatory properties. Exogenous application of H2S donors, administered either acutely during an inflammatory response or as an antecedent preconditioning intervention that invokes the activation of anti-inflammatory cell survival programs, effectively limits leukocyte rolling, adhesion and emigration, generation of reactive oxygen species, chemokine and cell adhesion molecule expression, endothelial barrier disruption, capillary perfusion deficits, and parenchymal cell dysfunction and injury. This chapter focuses on intravital microscopic methods that can be used to assess the anti-inflammatory effects exerted by H2S, as well as to explore the cellular signaling mechanisms by which this gaseous molecule limits the aforementioned inflammatory responses. Recent advances include use of intravital multiphoton microscopy and optical biosensor technology to explore signaling mechanisms in vivo.

Correlative intravital imaging of cGMP signals and vasodilation in mice

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) is an important signaling molecule and drug target in the cardiovascular system. It is well known that stimulation of the vascular nitric oxide (NO)-cGMP pathway results in vasodilation. However, the spatiotemporal dynamics of cGMP signals themselves and the cGMP concentrations within specific cardiovascular cell types in health, disease, and during pharmacotherapy with cGMP-elevating drugs are largely unknown. To facilitate the analysis of cGMP signaling in vivo, we have generated transgenic mice that express fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based cGMP sensor proteins. Here, we describe two models of intravital FRET/cGMP imaging in the vasculature of cGMP sensor mice: (1) epifluorescence-based ratio imaging in resistance-type vessels of the cremaster muscle and (2) ratio imaging by multiphoton microscopy within the walls of subcutaneous blood vessels accessed through a dorsal skinfold chamber. Both methods allow simultaneous monitoring of NO-induced cGMP transients and vasodilation in living mice. Detailed protocols of all steps necessary to perform and evaluate intravital imaging experiments of the vasculature of anesthetized mice including surgery, imaging, and data evaluation are provided. An image segmentation approach is described to estimate FRET/cGMP changes within moving structures such as the vessel wall during vasodilation. The methods presented herein should be useful to visualize cGMP or other biochemical signals that are detectable with FRET-based biosensors, such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate or Ca²⁺, and to correlate them with respective vascular responses. With further refinement and combination of transgenic mouse models and intravital imaging technologies, we envision an exciting future, in which we are able to “watch” biochemistry, (patho-)physiology, and pharmacotherapy in the context of a living mammalian organism.

Ca(2+) signaling in arterioles and small arteries of conscious, restrained, optical biosensor mice

Two-photon fluorescence microscopy and conscious, restrained optical biosensor mice were used to study smooth muscle Ca²⁺ signaling in ear arterioles. Conscious mice were used in order to preserve normal mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and sympathetic nerve activity (SNA). ExMLCK mice, which express a genetically-encoded smooth muscle-specific FRET-based Ca²⁺ indicator, were equipped with blood pressure telemetry and immobilized for imaging. MAP was 101 ± 4 mmHg in conscious restrained mice, similar to the freely mobile state (107 ± 3 mmHg). Oscillatory vasomotion or irregular contractions were observed in most arterioles (71%), with the greatest oscillatory frequency observed at 0.25 s⁻¹. In a typical arteriole with an average diameter of ~35 μm, oscillatory vasomotion of a 5–6 μm magnitude was accompanied by nearly uniform [Ca²⁺] oscillations from ~0.1 to 0.5 μM, with maximum [Ca²⁺] occurring immediately before the rapid decrease in diameter. Very rapid, spatially uniform “Ca²⁺ flashes” were also observed but not asynchronous propagating Ca²⁺ waves. In contrast, vasomotion and dynamic Ca²⁺ signals were rarely observed in ear arterioles of anesthetized exMLCK biosensor mice. Hexamethonium (30 μg/g BW, i.p.) caused a fall in MAP to 74 ± 4 mmHg, arteriolar vasodilation, and abolition of vasomotion and synchronous Ca²⁺ transients.

Summary: MAP and heart rate (HR) were normal during high-resolution Ca²⁺ imaging of conscious, restrained mice. SNA induced continuous vasomotion and irregular vasoconstrictions via spatially uniform Ca²⁺ signaling within the arterial wall. FRET-based biosensor mice and two-photon imaging provided the first measurements of [Ca²⁺] in vascular smooth muscle cells in arterioles of conscious animals.