Protein kinase Cepsilon and the antiadrenergic action of adenosine in rat ventricular myocytes

Crosstalk between adenosine A1 and β1-adrenergic receptors regulates translocation of PKCε in isolated rat cardiomyocytes

Adenosine A(1) receptor (A(1)R)-induced translocation of PKCε to transverse (t) tubular membranes in isolated rat cardiomyocytes is associated with a reduction in β(1)-adrenergic-stimulated contractile function. The PKCε-mediated activation of protein kinase D (PKD) by endothelin-1 is inhibited by β(1)-adrenergic stimulated protein kinase A (PKA) suggesting a similar mechanism of A(1)R signal transduction modulation by adrenergic agonists may exist in the heart. We have investigated the influence of β(1)-adrenergic stimulation on PKCε translocation elicited by A(1)R. Immunofluorescence imaging and Western blotting with PKCε and β-COP antibodies were used to quantify the co-localization of PKCε and t-tubular structures in isolated rat cardiomyocytes. The A(1)R agonist CCPA increased the co-localization of PKCε and t-tubules as detected by imaging. The β(1)-adrenergic receptor agonist isoproterenol (ISO) inhibited this effect of CCPA. Forskolin, a potent activator of PKA, mimicked, and H89, a pharmacological PKA inhibitor, and PKI, a membrane-permeable PKA peptide PKA inhibitor, attenuated the negative effect of ISO on the A(1)R-mediated PKCε translocation. Western blotting with isolated intact hearts revealed an increase in PKCε/β-COP co-localization induced by A(1)R. This increase was attenuated by the A(1)R antagonist DPCPX and ISO. The ISO-induced attenuation was reversed by H89. It is concluded that adrenergic stimulation inhibits A(1)R-induced PKCε translocation to the PKCε anchor site RACK2 constituent of a coatomer containing β-COP and associated with the t-tubular structures of the heart. In that this translocation has been previously associated with the antiadrenergic property of A(1)R, it is apparent that the interactive effects of adenosine and β(1)-adrenergic agonists on function are complex in the heart.

Myocardial adenosine A(1)-receptor-mediated adenoprotection involves phospholipase C, PKC-epsilon, and p38 MAPK, but not HSP27

Adenosine via an adenosine A(1) receptor (A(1)R) is a negative feedback inhibitor of adrenergic stimulation in the heart, protecting it from toxic effects of overstimulation. Stimulation of the A(1)R results in the activation of G(i) protein, release of free Gbetagamma-subunits, and activation/translocation of PKC-epsilon to the receptor for activated C kinase 2 protein at the Z-line of the cardiomyocyte sarcomere. Using an anti-Gbetagamma peptide, we investigated the role of these subunits in the A(1)R stimulation of phospholipase C (PLC), with the premise that the resulting diacylglycerol provides for the activation of PKC-epsilon. Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate release was an index of PLC activity. Chlorocyclopentyl adenosine (CCPA), an A(1)R agonist, increased inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate production by 273% in mouse heart homogenates, an effect absent in A(1)R knockout hearts and inhibited by anti-Gbetagamma peptide. In a second study, p38 MAPK and heat shock protein 27 (HSP27), found by others to be associated with the loss of myocardial contractile function, were postulated to play a role in the actions of A(1)R. Isoproterenol, a beta-adrenergic receptor agonist, increased the Ca(2+) transient and sarcomere shortening magnitudes by 36 and 49%, respectively. In the rat cardiomyocyte, CCPA significantly reduced these increases, an action blocked by the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB-203580. While CCPA significantly increased the phosphorylation of HSP27, this action was inhibited by isoproterenol. These data indicate that the activation of PKC-epsilon by A(1)R results from the activation of PLC via free Gbetagamma-subunits released upon A(1)R-induced dissociation of G(i)alphabetagamma. Attenuation of beta-adrenergic-induced contractile function by A(1)R may involve the activation of p38 MAPK, but not HSP27.

The exercising heart at altitude

Maximal cardiac output is reduced in severe acute hypoxia but also in chronic hypoxia by mechanisms that remain poorly understood. In theory, the reduction of maximal cardiac output could result from: (1) a regulatory response from the central nervous system, (2) reduction of maximal pumping capacity of the heart due to insufficient coronary oxygen delivery prior to the achievement of the normoxic maximal cardiac output, or (3) reduced central command. In this review, we focus on the effects that acute and chronic hypoxia have on the pumping capacity of the heart, particularly on myocardial contractility and the molecular responses elicited by acute and chronic hypoxia in the cardiac myocytes. Special emphasis is put on the cardioprotective effects of chronic hypoxia.

Adenoprotection of the heart involves phospholipase C-induced activation and translocation of PKC-epsilon to RACK2 in adult rat and mouse

Adenosine protects the heart from adrenergic overstimulation. This adenoprotection includes the direct anti-adrenergic action via adenosine A(1) receptors (A(1)R) on the adrenergic signaling pathway. An indirect A(1)R-induced attenuation of adrenergic responsiveness involves the translocation of PKC-epsilon to t-tubules and Z-line of cardiomyocytes. We investigated with sarcomere imaging, immunocytochemistry imaging, and coimmunoprecipitation (co-IP) whether A(1)R activation of PKC-epsilon induces the kinase translocation to receptor for activated C kinase 2 (RACK2) in isolated rat and mouse hearts and whether phospholipase C (PLC) is involved. Rat cardiomyocytes were treated with the A(1)R agonist chlorocyclopentyladenosine (CCPA) and exposed to primary PKC-epsilon and RACK2 antibodies with secondaries conjugated to Cy3 and Cy5 (indodicarbocyanine), respectively. Scanning confocal microscopy showed that CCPA caused PKC-epsilon to reversibly colocalize with RACK2 within 3 min. Additionally, rat and mouse hearts were perfused and stimulated with CCPA or phenylisopropyladenosine to activate A(1)R, or with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate to activate PKC. RACK2 was immunoprecipitated from heart extracts and resolved with SDS-PAGE. Western blotting showed that CCPA, phenylisopropyladenosine, and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate in the rat heart increased the PKC-epsilon co-IP with RACK2 by 186, 49, and >1,000%, respectively. The A(1)R antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine prevented the CCPA-induced co-IP with RACK2. In mouse hearts, CCPA increased the co-IP of PKC-epsilon with RACK2 by 61%. With rat cardiomyocytes, the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol increased sarcomere shortening by 177%. CCPA reduced this response by 47%, an action inhibited by the PLC inhibitor U-73122 and 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine. In conclusion, A(1)R stimulation of the heart is associated with PLC-initiated PKC-epsilon translocation and association with RACK2.

Adenosine A2A and beta-adrenergic calcium transient and contractile responses in rat ventricular myocytes

The adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) enhances cardiac contractility, and the adenosine A1R receptor (A1R) is antiadrenergic by reducing the adrenergic beta1 receptor (beta1R)-elicited increase in contractility. In this study we compared the A2AR-, A1R-, and beta1R-elicited actions on isolated rat ventricular myocytes in terms of Ca transient and contractile responses involving PKA and PKC. Stimulation of A2AR with 2 microM (approximately EC50) CGS-21680 (CGS) produced a 17-28% increase in the Ca transient ratio (CTR) and maximum velocities (Vmax) of transient ratio increase (+MVT) and recovery (-MVT) but no change in the time-to-50% recovery (TTR). CGS increased myocyte sarcomere shortening (MSS) and the maximum velocities of shortening (+MVS) and relaxation (-MVS) by 31-34% with no change in time-to-50% relengthening (TTL). beta1R stimulation using 2 nM (approximately EC50) isoproterenol (Iso) increased CTR, +MVT, and -MVT by 67-162% and decreased TTR by 43%. Iso increased MSS, +MVS, and -MVS by 153-174% and decreased TTL by 31%. The A2AR and beta1R Ca transient and contractile responses were not additive. The PKA inhibitor Rp-adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate triethylamonium salt prevented both the CGS- and Iso-elicited contractile responses. The PKC inhibitors chelerythrine and KIE1-1 peptide (PKCepsilon specific) prevented the antiadrenergic action of A1R but did not influence A2AR-mediated increases in contractile variables. The findings suggest that cardiac A2AR utilize cAMP/PKA like beta1R, but the Ca transient and contractile responses are less in magnitude and not equally affected. Although PKC is important in the A1R antiadrenergic action, it does not seem to play a role in A2AR-elicited Ca transient and contractile events.

Inhibition of beta-adrenergic signaling by intracellular AMP is independent of cell-surface adenosine receptors in rat cardiac cells

We report a novel action of intracellular adenosine monophosphate (AMP) to inhibit beta-adrenergic signaling in isolated rat ventricular myocytes. Extracellular application of adenosine or AMP suppressed isoproterenol (Iso)-induced prolongation of action potential duration (APD). This effect was completely abolished by an A(1)-receptor antagonist, DPCPX. Intracellular application of AMP, but not adenosine, attenuated Iso-induced APD prolongation. Iso-induced increases in the L-type Ca(2+) current (I(Ca,L)) were also inhibited by intracellular AMP. These inhibitory effects were not affected by either DPCPX or glibenclamide. In vitro, AMP directly inhibited PKA activity via binding to its regulatory subunit. These results suggest that intracellular AMP attenuates beta-adrenergic signaling by directly inhibiting PKA activity, independently of A(1)-purinergic receptor.

Contractile effects of adenosine, coronary flow and perfusion pressure in murine myocardium

There is mixed evidence adenosine receptors (ARs) may enhance myocardial contractility, although this remains contentious. We assessed inotropic actions of adenosine (50 muM) and selective AR activation with 100 nM N (6)-cyclohexyladenosine (CHA; A(1)AR agonist), 25 nM 2-[p-(2-carboxyethyl) phenethylamino]-5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (CGS-21680; A(2A)AR agonist) and 100 nM 2-chloro-N (6)-(3-iodobenzyl)-adenosine-5'-N-methyluronamide (Cl-IB-MECA; A(3)AR agonist) in mouse hearts perfused at constant pressure, constant flow, or conditions of stable flow and pressure (following maximal nitroprusside-mediated dilatation at constant flow). Adenosine and CGS-21680 significantly (although modestly) increased force in constant-pressure perfused hearts (</=10 mmHg elevations in systolic pressure), effects paralleled by coronary vasodilatation (</=10 ml min(-1) g(-1) elevations in flow). Neither CHA nor Cl-IB-MECA altered force or flow. With constant-flow perfusion, adenosine and CGS-21680 reduced systolic pressure in parallel with perfusion pressure. When changes in coronary flow and pressure were prevented, CGS-21680 failed to alter contractility. However, adenosine still enhanced systolic pressure up to 10 mmHg. Relations between flow, perfusion pressure and ventricular force evidence substantial Gregg effects in murine myocardium: systolic force increases transiently by approximately 1 mmHg ml(-1) min(-1) g(-1) rise in flow during the first minutes of hyperaemia and in a sustained manner (by approximately 1 mmHg mmHg(-1)) during altered perfusion pressure. These effects contribute to inotropism with AR agonism when flow/pressure is uncontrolled. In summary, we find no evidence of direct A(1) or A(3)AR-mediated inotropic responses in intact myocardium. Inotropic actions of A(2A)AR agonism appear entirely Gregg-related. Nonetheless, the endogenous agonist adenosine exerts a modest inotropic action independently of flow and perfusion pressure. The basis of this response remains to be identified.

Acute modulation of PP2a and troponin I phosphorylation in ventricular myocytes: studies with a novel PP2a peptide inhibitor

The present study demonstrates that acute activation with either beta-adrenergic receptor agonists or H(2)O(2) treatment increases protein phosphatase 2a (PP2a) activity in ventricular myocytes. PP2a activation occurs concomitant with an increase in methylation of PP2a, changes in localization of a PP2a targeting subunit PP2aB56alpha, and a decrease in phosphorylation of PP2a substrates, such as troponin I (TnI) and ERK in ventricular myocytes. Okadaic acid, a well-established pharmacological inhibitor of PP2a, and the peptide Thr-Pro-Asp-Tyr-Phe-Leu (TPDYFL) were used to block PP2a methylation, localization, and phosphorylations. TPDYFL is a highly conserved sequence of the PP2a catalytic subunit COOH-terminus. Specifically, both okadaic acid and the peptide increased beta-adrenergic-cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of TnI and blocked the beta-adrenergic-cAMP-dependent translocation of PP2aB56alpha. TPDYFL, but not a scrambled version of this sequence, blocked H(2)O(2)-induced changes in PP2a methylation and TnI dephosphorylation. Okadaic acid produces similar inhibition of H(2)O(2) effects. Thus we propose that the novel peptide TPDYFL acts as an inhibitor of PP2a activity and may be a useful tool to increase our understanding of how PP2a is regulated and the role of PP2a in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. In addition, the present study is consistent with acute beta-adrenergic receptor activation and H(2)O(2) exposure, simultaneously activating kinases and PP2a to work on common substrates, such as TnI. We hypothesize that dual activation of opposing enzymes provides for a tighter regulation of substrate phosphorylations in ventricular myocytes.

Contractile effects of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors in isolated murine hearts

The adenosine A1 receptor (A1R) inhibits β-adrenergic-induced contractile effects (antiadrenergic action), and the adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) both opposes the A1R action and enhances contractility in the heart. This study investigated the A1R and A2AR function in β-adrenergic-stimulated, isolated wild-type and A2AR knockout murine hearts. Constant flow and pressure perfused preparations were employed, and the maximal rate of left ventricular pressure (LVP) development (+dp/d tmax) was used as an index of cardiac function. A1R activation with 2-chloro- N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA) resulted in a 27% reduction in contractile response to the β-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol (ISO). Stimulation of A2AR with 2- P(2-carboxyethyl)phenethyl-amino-5′- N-ethylcarboxyamidoadenosine (CGS-21680) attenuated this antiadrenergic effect, resulting in a partial (constant flow preparation) or complete (constant pressure preparation) restoration of the ISO contractile response. These effects of A2AR were absent in knockout hearts. Up to 63% of the A2AR influence was estimated to be mediated through its inhibition of the A1R antiadrenergic effect, with the remainder being the direct contractile effect. Further experiments examined the effects of A2AR activation and associated vasodilation with low-flow ischemia in the absence of β-adrenergic stimulation. A2AR activation reduced by 5% the depression of contractile function caused by the flow reduction and also increased contractile performance over a wide range of perfusion flows. This effect was prevented by the A2AR antagonist 4-(2-[7-amino-2-(2-furyl)[1,2,4]triazolo[2,3-a][1,3,5]triazin-5-ylamino]ethyl)phenol (ZM-241385). It is concluded that in the murine heart, A1R and A2AR modulate the response to β-adrenergic stimulation with A2AR, attenuating the effects of A1R and also increasing contractility directly. In addition, A2AR supports myocardial contractility in a setting of low-flow ischemia.

Growth regulation of the vascular system: an emerging role for adenosine

The importance of metabolic factors in the regulation of angiogenesis is well understood. An increase in metabolic activity leads to a decrease in tissue oxygenation causing tissues to become hypoxic. The hypoxia initiates a variety of signals that stimulate angiogenesis, and the increase in vascularity that follows promotes oxygen delivery to the tissues. When the tissues receive adequate amounts of oxygen, the intermediate effectors return to normal levels, and angiogenesis ceases. An emerging concept is that adenosine released from hypoxic tissues has an important role in driving the angiogenesis. The following feedback control hypothesis is proposed: AMP is dephosphorylated by ecto-5′-nucleotidase, producing adenosine under hypoxic conditions in the extracellular space adjacent to a parenchymal cell (e.g., cardiomyocyte, skeletal muscle fiber, hepatocyte, etc.). Extracellular adenosine activates A2receptors, which stimulates the release of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) from the parenchymal cell. VEGF binds to its receptor (VEGF receptor 2) on endothelial cells, stimulating their proliferation and migration. Adenosine can also stimulate endothelial cell proliferation independently of VEGF, which probably involves modulation of other proangiogenic and antiangiogenic growth factors and perhaps an intracellular mechanism. In addition, hemodynamic factors associated with adenosine-induced vasodilation may have a role in the development and remodeling of the vasculature. Once a new capillary network has been established, and the diffusion/perfusion capabilities of the vasculature are sufficient to supply the parenchymal cells with adequate amounts of oxygen, adenosine and VEGF as well as other proangiogenic and antiangiogenic growth factors return to near-normal levels, thus closing the negative feedback loop. The available data indicate that adenosine might be an essential mediator for up to 50–70% of the hypoxia-induced angiogenesis in some situations; however, additional studies in intact animals will be required to fully understand the quantitative importance of adenosine.