Hypoxia briefly increases diuresis but reduces plasma volume by fluid redistribution in women

Cerebral blood flow regulation in hypobaric hypoxia: role of haemoconcentration

During acute hypoxic exposure, cerebral blood flow (CBF) increases to compensate for the reduced arterial oxygen content (CaO2). Nevertheless, as exposure extends, both CaO2 and CBF progressively normalize. Haemoconcentration is the primary mechanism underlying the CaO2 restoration and may therefore explain, at least in part, the CBF normalization. Accordingly, we tested the hypothesis that reversing the haemoconcentration associated with extended hypoxic exposure returns CBF towards the values observed in acute hypoxia. Twenty-three healthy lowlanders (12 females) completed two identical 4-day sojourns in a hypobaric chamber, one in normoxia (NX) and one in hypobaric hypoxia (HH, 3500 m). CBF was measured by ultrasound after 1, 6, 12, 48 and 96 h and compared between sojourns to assess the time course of changes in CBF. In addition, CBF was measured at the end of the HH sojourn after hypervolaemic haemodilution. Compared with NX, CBF was increased in HH after 1 h (P = 0.001) but similar at all later time points (all P > 0.199). Haemoglobin concentration was higher in HH than NX from 12 h to 96 h (all P < 0.001). While haemodilution reduced haemoglobin concentration from 14.8 ± 1.0 to 13.9 ± 1.2 g·dl-1 (P < 0.001), it did not increase CBF (974 ± 282 to 872 ± 200 ml·min-1; P = 0.135). We thus conclude that, at least at this moderate altitude, haemoconcentration is not the primary mechanism underlying CBF normalization with acclimatization. These data ostensibly reflect the fact that CBF regulation at high altitude is a complex process that integrates physiological variables beyond CaO2. KEY POINTS: Acute hypoxia causes an increase in cerebral blood flow (CBF). However, as exposure extends, CBF progressively normalizes. We investigated whether hypoxia-induced haemoconcentration contributes to the normalization of CBF during extended hypoxia. Following 4 days of hypobaric hypoxic exposure (corresponding to 3500 m altitude), we measured CBF before and after abolishing hypoxia-induced haemoconcentration by hypervolaemic haemodilution. Contrary to our hypothesis, the haemodilution did not increase CBF in hypoxia. Our findings do not support haemoconcentration as a stimulus for the CBF normalization during extended hypoxia.

Mechanisms underpinning sympathoexcitation in hypoxia

Sympathoexcitation is a hallmark of hypoxic exposure, occurring acutely, as well as persisting in acclimatised lowland populations and with generational exposure in highland native populations of the Andean and Tibetan plateaus. The mechanisms mediating altitude sympathoexcitation are multifactorial, involving alterations in both peripheral autonomic reflexes and central neural pathways, and are dependent on the duration of exposure. Initially, hypoxia-induced sympathoexcitation appears to be an adaptive response, primarily mediated by regulatory reflex mechanisms concerned with preserving systemic and cerebral tissue O2 delivery and maintaining arterial blood pressure. However, as exposure continues, sympathoexcitation is further augmented above that observed with acute exposure, despite acclimatisation processes that restore arterial oxygen content (C a O 2 ${C_{{\mathrm{a}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ ). Under these conditions, sympathoexcitation may become maladaptive, giving rise to reduced vascular reactivity and mildly elevated blood pressure. Importantly, current evidence indicates the peripheral chemoreflex does not play a significant role in the augmentation of sympathoexcitation during altitude acclimatisation, although methodological limitations may underestimate its true contribution. Instead, processes that provide no obvious survival benefit in hypoxia appear to contribute, including elevated pulmonary arterial pressure. Nocturnal periodic breathing is also a potential mechanism contributing to altitude sympathoexcitation, although experimental studies are required. Despite recent advancements within the field, several areas remain unexplored, including the mechanisms responsible for the apparent normalisation of muscle sympathetic nerve activity during intermediate hypoxic exposures, the mechanisms accounting for persistent sympathoexcitation following descent from altitude and consideration of whether there are sex-based differences in sympathetic regulation at altitude.

Sex as a biological variable for cardiovascular physiology

There have been ongoing efforts by federal agencies and scientific communities since the early 1990s to incorporate sex and/or gender in all aspects of cardiovascular research. Scientific journals provide a critical function as change agents to influence transformation by encouraging submissions for topic areas, and by setting standards and expectations for articles submitted to the journal. As part of ongoing efforts to advance sex and gender in cardiovascular physiology research, the American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology recently launched a call for papers on Considering Sex as a Biological Variable. This call was an overwhelming success, resulting in 78 articles published in this collection. This review summarizes the major themes of the collection, including Sex as a Biological Variable Within: Endothelial Cell and Vascular Physiology, Cardiovascular Immunity and Inflammation, Metabolism and Mitochondrial Energy, Extracellular Matrix Turnover and Fibrosis, Neurohormonal Signaling, and Cardiovascular Clinical and Epidemiology Assessments. Several articles also focused on establishing rigor and reproducibility of key physiological measurements involved in cardiovascular health and disease, as well as recommendations and considerations for study design. Combined, these articles summarize our current understanding of sex and gender influences on cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology and provide insight into future directions needed to further expand our knowledge.

Regulation of haemoglobin concentration at high altitude

Lowlanders sojourning for more than 1 day at high altitude (HA) experience a reduction in plasma volume (PV) that increases haemoglobin concentration and thus restores arterial oxygen content. If the sojourn extends over weeks, an expansion of total red cell volume (RCV) occurs and contributes to the haemoconcentration. While the reduction in PV was classically attributed to an increased diuretic fluid loss, recent studies support fluid redistribution, rather than loss, as the underlying mechanism. The fluid redistribution is presumably driven by a disappearance of proteins from the circulation and the resulting reduction in oncotic pressure exerted by the plasma, although the fate of the disappearing proteins remains unclear. The RCV expansion is the result of an accelerated erythropoietic activity secondary to enhanced renal erythropoietin release, but a contribution of other mechanisms cannot be excluded. After return from HA, intravascular volumes return to normal values and the normalisation of RCV might involve selective destruction of newly formed erythrocytes, although this explanation has been strongly challenged by recent studies. In contrast to acclimatised lowlanders, native highlanders originating from the Tibetan and the Ethiopian plateaus present with a normal or only mildly elevated haemoglobin concentration. Genetic adaptations blunting the erythropoietic response to HA exposure have been proposed as an explanation for the absence of more pronounced haemoconcentration in these populations, but new evidence also supports a contribution of a larger than expected PV. The functional significance of the relatively low haemoglobin concentration in Tibetan and Ethiopian highlanders is incompletely understood and warrants further investigation.

Protective Effect of Modified Hemoglobin on Rabbits and Goats in High-Altitude Sickness

The prevalence and severity of high-altitude sickness increases with increasing altitude. Prevention of hypoxia caused by high-altitude sickness is an urgent problem. As a novel oxygen-carrying fluid, modified hemoglobin can carry oxygen in a full oxygen partial pressure environment and release oxygen in a low oxygen partial pressure environment. It is unclear whether modified hemoglobin can improve hypoxic injury on a plateau. Using hypobaric chamber rabbit (5000 m) and plateau goat (3600 m) models, general behavioral scores and vital signs, hemodynamic, vital organ functions, and blood gas are measured. The results show that the general behavioral scores and vital signs decrease significantly in the hypobaric chamber or plateau, and the modified hemoglobin can effectively improve the general behavioral scores and vital signs in rabbits and goats, and reduce the degree of damage to vital organs. Further studies reveal that arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2 ) and arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2 ) on the plateau decrease rapidly, and the modified hemoglobin could increase PaO2 and SaO2 ; thus, increasing the oxygen-carrying capacity. Moreover, modified hemoglobin has few side effects on hemodynamics and kidney injury. These results indicate that modified hemoglobin has a protective effect against high-altitude sickness.

Effects of Hypobaric Hypoxia on Coagulation in Healthy Subjects Exposed to 3,500 m Altitude

Kammerer, Tobias, Anna Walzl, Thomas Müller, Philipp Groene, Giulia Roveri, Rachel Turner, Johanna Roche, Hannes Gatterer, Christoph Siebenmann, and Simon T. Schäfer. Effects of hypobaric hypoxia on coagulation in healthy subjects exposed to 3,500 m altitude. High Alt Med Biol. 24:94-103, 2023. Background: Hypoxia is discussed as a trigger for prothrombotic changes both in intensive care and high altitude medicine. This research study aimed to evaluate the effect of isolated hypobaric hypoxia (HH) on coagulation in females in a highly standardized setting. Methods: Twelve healthy female subjects were studied under HH (equivalent to 3,500 m) and normoxia (NX) during two 4-day sojourns, in a strictly controlled crossover design. Nutrition, fluid intake, hormonal status (i.e., menstrual cycle variation), and physical stress were standardized. Functional coagulation and blood lysis were measured by viscoelastometry and compared between HH and NX. In addition, plasma-based coagulation tests (PBCTs), namely prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, fibrinogen, factor VIII coagulation activity (FVIII:C), von Willebrand factor antigen (vWF:Ag), and von Willebrand factor ristocetin cofactor activity (vWF:RCo) were measured. Results: Neither for Viscoelastic Haemostatic Assays nor for PBCTs significant changes were found for HH compared with NX (all p > 0.05). Specifically, the lysis ability, as well as clotting time, clot formation, clot amplitude, and maximum clot firmness unchanged were similar between HH and NX. This also applied to all other variables. Conclusion: We demonstrate that moderate HH per se has no influence on blood coagulation in healthy females.

Changes in body mass, appetite-related hormones, and appetite sensation in women during 4 days of hypobaric hypoxic exposure equivalent to 3,500-m altitude

Altitude exposure may suppress appetite and hence provide a viable weight-loss strategy. While changes in food intake and availability as well as physical activity may contribute to altered appetite at altitude, herein we aimed to investigate the isolated effects of hypobaric hypoxia on appetite regulation and sensation. Twelve healthy women (age: 24.0 ± 4.2 years, body mass: 60.6 ± 7.0 kg) completed two 4-day sojourns in a hypobaric chamber, one in normoxia [P_B = 761 mmHg, 262 m (NX)] and one in hypobaric hypoxia [P_B = 493 mmHg (HH)] equivalent to 3,500-m altitude. Energy intake was standardized 4 days prior and throughout both sojourns. Plasma concentrations of leptin, acylated ghrelin, cholecystokinin (CCK), and cytokine growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) were determined every morning. Before and after breakfast, lunch, and dinner, appetite was assessed using visual analog scales. Body mass was significantly decreased following HH but not NX (-0.71 ± 0.32 kg vs. -0.05 ± 0.54 kg, condition: P < 0.001). Compared to NX, acylated ghrelin decreased throughout the HH sojourn (condition × time: P = 0.020), while leptin was higher throughout the entire HH sojourn (condition: P < 0.001). No differences were observed in CCK and GDF15 between the sojourns. Feelings of satiety and fullness were higher (condition: P < 0.001 and P = 0.013, respectively), whereas prospective food consumption was lower in HH than in NX (condition: P < 0.001). Our findings suggest that hypoxia exerts an anorexigenic effect on appetite-regulating hormones, suppresses subjective appetite sensation, and can induce weight loss in young healthy women. Among the investigated hormones, acylated ghrelin and leptin most likely explain the observed HH-induced appetite suppression.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study investigated the effects of hypoxia on appetite regulation in women while strictly controlling for diet, physical activity, menstrual cycle, and environmental conditions. In young women, 4 days of altitude exposure (3,500 m) decreases body weight and circulating acylated ghrelin levels while preserving leptin concentrations. In line with the hormonal changes, altitude exposure induces alterations in appetite sensation, consisting of a decreased feeling of hunger and prospective food intake and an increased feeling of fullness and satiety.