1
|
Breslin JW. Edema and lymphatic clearance: molecular mechanisms and ongoing challenges. Clin Sci (Lond) 2023; 137:1451-1476. [PMID: 37732545 PMCID: PMC11025659 DOI: 10.1042/cs20220314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Resolution of edema remains a significant clinical challenge. Conditions such as traumatic shock, sepsis, or diabetes often involve microvascular hyperpermeability, which leads to tissue and organ dysfunction. Lymphatic insufficiency due to genetic causes, surgical removal of lymph nodes, or infections, leads to varying degrees of tissue swelling that impair mobility and immune defenses. Treatment options are limited to management of edema as there are no specific therapeutics that have demonstrated significant success for ameliorating microvascular leakage or impaired lymphatic function. This review examines current knowledge about the physiological, cellular, and molecular mechanisms that control microvascular permeability and lymphatic clearance, the respective processes for interstitial fluid formation and removal. Clinical conditions featuring edema, along with potential future directions are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome W Breslin
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, FL, U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lee GH, Huang SA, Aw WY, Rathod M, Cho C, Ligler FS, Polacheck WJ. Multilayer microfluidic platform for the study of luminal, transmural, and interstitial flow. Biofabrication 2022; 14:10.1088/1758-5090/ac48e5. [PMID: 34991082 PMCID: PMC8867496 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ac48e5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Efficient delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues requires an intricate balance of blood, lymphatic, and interstitial fluid pressures (IFPs), and gradients in fluid pressure drive the flow of blood, lymph, and interstitial fluid through tissues. While specific fluid mechanical stimuli, such as wall shear stress, have been shown to modulate cellular signaling pathways along with gene and protein expression patterns, an understanding of the key signals imparted by flowing fluid and how these signals are integrated across multiple cells and cell types in native tissues is incomplete due to limitations with current assays. Here, we introduce a multi-layer microfluidic platform (MμLTI-Flow) that enables the culture of engineered blood and lymphatic microvessels and independent control of blood, lymphatic, and IFPs. Using optical microscopy methods to measure fluid velocity for applied input pressures, we demonstrate varying rates of interstitial fluid flow as a function of blood, lymphatic, and interstitial pressure, consistent with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models. The resulting microfluidic and computational platforms will provide for analysis of key fluid mechanical parameters and cellular mechanisms that contribute to diseases in which fluid imbalances play a role in progression, including lymphedema and solid cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gi-hun Lee
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University
| | - Stephanie A. Huang
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University
| | - Wen Y. Aw
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University
| | - Mitesh Rathod
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University
| | - Crescentia Cho
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University
| | - Frances S. Ligler
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University
| | - William J. Polacheck
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University,Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,McAllister Heart Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ohhashi T, Kawai Y, Hayashi M, Watanabe-Asaka T. Estimation of the Lymph Flow Through Thoracic Duct in Human Subjects Using the Urine Osmolarity: Applicable for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Manual Lymph Drainage. Lymphat Res Biol 2021; 20:282-289. [PMID: 34724800 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2020.0138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, there are many methods to evaluate the effectiveness of manual lymph drainage in the treatment of lymphedema, that is, limb volume measurement, bio-electrical impedance measurement, computer tomography, and ultrasound imaging. However, it is difficult for these methods to accurately address the lymph flow generated by manual lymph drainage. Therefore, we aimed at developing a concise and accurate method to measure the lymph flow through the thoracic duct in human subjects, which is applicable for evaluating the effectiveness of manual lymph drainage. In the present mini-review, we demonstrate the developed method in detail and its scientific evidence for the effectiveness obtained with animal and human clinical experiments. In rat in vivo experiments, intragastric administration of distilled water significantly increased mesenteric flow, which was transported via the cisterna chyli and then the thoracic duct. The manual massage on the cisterna chyli in the anesthetized rabbit significantly accelerated the lymph flow through the thoracic duct, resulting in marked hemodilution. Abdominal respiration in the supine position in human subjects produced similar hemodilution, with a marked decrease in the concentration of vasopressin in the blood. On this basis, we developed a new method to accurately measure the lymph flow through the thoracic duct by using changes in the concentration of vasopressin in the blood. In addition, with changes in urine osmolarity depending on the concentration of vasopressin in the blood, we developed a more concise and noninvasive method for evaluating the lymph flow through the thoracic duct in human subjects. These methods may be applicable for evaluating the effectiveness for the manual lymph drainage in the patients with lymphedema.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Toshio Ohhashi
- Department of Innovation of Medical and Health Sciences Research, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan
| | - Yoshiko Kawai
- Department of Innovation of Medical and Health Sciences Research, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan.,Division of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Moyuru Hayashi
- Department of Innovation of Medical and Health Sciences Research, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan.,Division of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Tomomi Watanabe-Asaka
- Department of Innovation of Medical and Health Sciences Research, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan.,Division of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Jannaway M, Scallan JP. VE-Cadherin and Vesicles Differentially Regulate Lymphatic Vascular Permeability to Solutes of Various Sizes. Front Physiol 2021; 12:687563. [PMID: 34621180 PMCID: PMC8491776 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.687563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic vascular permeability prevents lymph leakage that is associated with lymphedema, lymphatic malformations, obesity, and inflammation. However, the molecular control of lymphatic permeability remains poorly understood. Recent studies have suggested that adherens junctions and vesicle transport may be involved in regulating lymphatic vessel permeability. To determine the contribution of each transport pathway, we utilized an ex vivo permeability assay to directly measure the solute flux of various molecular weight solutes across a range of pressures in intact murine collecting lymphatic vessels. Pharmacological and biological tools were used to probe the relative contributions of vesicles and junction proteins in the lymphatic vasculature. We show that the permeability of collecting lymphatic vessels is inversely related to the solute molecular weight. Further, our data reveal that vesicles selectively transport BSA, as an inhibitor of vesicle formation significantly decreased the permeability to BSA (∼60% decrease, n = 8, P = 0.02), but not to 3 kDa dextran (n = 7, P = 0.41), α-lactalbumin (n = 5, P = 0.26) or 70 kDa dextran (n = 8, P = 0.13). In contrast, disruption of VE-cadherin binding with a function blocking antibody significantly increased lymphatic vessel permeability to both 3 kDa dextran (5.7-fold increase, n = 5, P < 0.0001) and BSA (5.8-fold increase, n = 5, P < 0.0001). Thus, in the lymphatic vasculature, adherens junctions did not exhibit selectivity for any of the solutes tested here, whereas vesicles specifically transport BSA. Overall, the findings suggest that disease states that disrupt VE-cadherin localization or expression will cause significant leakage of solutes and fluid from the lymphatic vasculature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Jannaway
- Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Joshua P Scallan
- Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
O'Melia MJ, Lund AW, Thomas SN. The Biophysics of Lymphatic Transport: Engineering Tools and Immunological Consequences. iScience 2019; 22:28-43. [PMID: 31739172 PMCID: PMC6864335 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic vessels mediate fluid flows that affect antigen distribution and delivery, lymph node stromal remodeling, and cell-cell interactions, to thus regulate immune activation. Here we review the functional role of lymphatic transport and lymph node biomechanics in immunity. We present experimental tools that enable quantitative analysis of lymphatic transport and lymph node dynamics in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we discuss the current understanding for how changes in lymphatic transport and lymph node biomechanics contribute to pathogenesis of conditions including cancer, aging, neurodegeneration, and infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meghan J O'Melia
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Amanda W Lund
- Departments of Cell Developmental Cancer Biology, Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, and Dermatology, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 2720 SW Moody Avenue, KR-CDCB, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| | - Susan N Thomas
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, 315 Ferst Dr NW, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, 801 Ferst Dr NW, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Winship Cancer Institute, 1365 Clifton Rd, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Chang CW, Seibel AJ, Song JW. Application of microscale culture technologies for studying lymphatic vessel biology. Microcirculation 2019; 26:e12547. [PMID: 30946511 DOI: 10.1111/micc.12547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Immense progress in microscale engineering technologies has significantly expanded the capabilities of in vitro cell culture systems for reconstituting physiological microenvironments that are mediated by biomolecular gradients, fluid transport, and mechanical forces. Here, we examine the innovative approaches based on microfabricated vessels for studying lymphatic biology. To help understand the necessary design requirements for microfluidic models, we first summarize lymphatic vessel structure and function. Next, we provide an overview of the molecular and biomechanical mediators of lymphatic vessel function. Then we discuss the past achievements and new opportunities for microfluidic culture models to a broad range of applications pertaining to lymphatic vessel physiology. We emphasize the unique attributes of microfluidic systems that enable the recapitulation of multiple physicochemical cues in vitro for studying lymphatic pathophysiology. Current challenges and future outlooks of microscale technology for studying lymphatics are also discussed. Collectively, we make the assertion that further progress in the development of microscale models will continue to enrich our mechanistic understanding of lymphatic biology and physiology to help realize the promise of the lymphatic vasculature as a therapeutic target for a broad spectrum of diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Wen Chang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Alex J Seibel
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Jonathan W Song
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.,The Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Breslin JW, Yang Y, Scallan JP, Sweat RS, Adderley SP, Murfee WL. Lymphatic Vessel Network Structure and Physiology. Compr Physiol 2018; 9:207-299. [PMID: 30549020 PMCID: PMC6459625 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The lymphatic system is comprised of a network of vessels interrelated with lymphoid tissue, which has the holistic function to maintain the local physiologic environment for every cell in all tissues of the body. The lymphatic system maintains extracellular fluid homeostasis favorable for optimal tissue function, removing substances that arise due to metabolism or cell death, and optimizing immunity against bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other antigens. This article provides a comprehensive review of important findings over the past century along with recent advances in the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of lymphatic vessels, including tissue/organ specificity, development, mechanisms of lymph formation and transport, lymphangiogenesis, and the roles of lymphatics in disease. © 2019 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 9:207-299, 2019.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome W. Breslin
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Ying Yang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Joshua P. Scallan
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Richard S. Sweat
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA
| | - Shaquria P. Adderley
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - W. Lee Murfee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sato M, Sasaki N, Ato M, Hirakawa S, Sato K, Sato K. Microcirculation-on-a-Chip: A Microfluidic Platform for Assaying Blood- and Lymphatic-Vessel Permeability. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137301. [PMID: 26332321 PMCID: PMC4558006 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed a microfluidic model of microcirculation containing both blood and lymphatic vessels for examining vascular permeability. The designed microfluidic device harbors upper and lower channels that are partly aligned and are separated by a porous membrane, and on this membrane, blood vascular endothelial cells (BECs) and lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) were cocultured back-to-back. At cell-cell junctions of both BECs and LECs, claudin-5 and VE-cadherin were detected. The permeability coefficient measured here was lower than the value reported for isolated mammalian venules. Moreover, our results showed that the flow culture established in the device promoted the formation of endothelial cell-cell junctions, and that treatment with histamine, an inflammation-promoting substance, induced changes in the localization of tight and adherens junction-associated proteins and an increase in vascular permeability in the microdevice. These findings indicated that both BECs and LECs appeared to retain their functions in the microfluidic coculture platform. Using this microcirculation device, the vascular damage induced by habu snake venom was successfully assayed, and the assay time was reduced from 24 h to 30 min. This is the first report of a microcirculation model in which BECs and LECs were cocultured. Because the micromodel includes lymphatic vessels in addition to blood vessels, the model can be used to evaluate both vascular permeability and lymphatic return rate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miwa Sato
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoki Sasaki
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Manabu Ato
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Hirakawa
- Department of Dermatology at Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu city, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Kiichi Sato
- Division of Molecular Science, School of Science and Technology, Gunma University, Kiryu, Gunma, Japan
| | - Kae Sato
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University, Bunkyo, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kawai Y, Kaidoh M, Yokoyama Y, Ohhashi T. Pivotal Roles of Lymphatic Endothelial Cell Layers in the Permeability to Hydrophilic Substances through Collecting Lymph Vessel Walls: Effects of Inflammatory Cytokines. Lymphat Res Biol 2014; 12:124-35. [DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2014.0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Kawai
- Department of Physiology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto. Japan
| | - Maki Kaidoh
- Department of Physiology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto. Japan
| | - Yumiko Yokoyama
- Department of Physiology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto. Japan
| | - Toshio Ohhashi
- Department of Physiology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto. Japan
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Starnberg K, Jeppsson A, Lindahl B, Hammarsten O. Revision of the Troponin T Release Mechanism from Damaged Human Myocardium. Clin Chem 2014; 60:1098-104. [DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2013.217943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Cardiac troponin T (cTnT) is released from damaged heart tissue in patients with acute myocardial infarction. It is presumed that most cTnT is tightly bound and released following the degradation of myofibrils in necrotic cardiomyocytes, resulting in sustained increases in circulating cTnT. Evidence of a large irreversibly bound fraction is based on the inability to extract most cTnT from cardiac tissue in cold low-salt extraction buffers.
METHODS
Here we examined in vitro extraction of cTnT from human cardiac tissue in serum at 37 °C.
RESULTS
We found that over 80% of the cTnT can be extracted from human cardiac tissue in 90 min using large volumes of human serum at 37 °C. The release ratio was highly dependent on the extraction volume and was only 3% if an equal volume of serum and heart tissue was used. In contrast, extraction of the cytoplasmic cardiac damage markers myoglobin and creatinine kinase was much less affected by changing these conditions. Purified cTnT was poorly soluble in a low-salt extraction buffer at 0 °C, previously used to define the free cTnT fraction.
CONCLUSIONS
Our data indicate that the diffusible fraction of cTnT is likely substantially larger in vivo than previously reported and likely is not fixed but dependent on local plasma flow. It is therefore possible that the sustained increase in circulating cTnT after myocardial infarction is at least in part due to a slow washout of cTnT that interacts reversibly with tropomyosin in myofibrils.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Starnberg
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Transfusion Medicine and
| | - Anders Jeppsson
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Sahlgrenska University Hospital Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Bertil Lindahl
- Department of Medical Sciences, Cardiology and Uppsala Clinical Research Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ola Hammarsten
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Transfusion Medicine and
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Ikomi F, Kawai Y, Ohhashi T. Recent advance in lymph dynamic analysis in lymphatics and lymph nodes. Ann Vasc Dis 2013; 5:258-68. [PMID: 23555523 DOI: 10.3400/avd.ra.12.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphatics are a unidirectional transport system that carries fluid from the interstitial space and back into the blood stream. Initial lymphatics take up not only fluid but also high-molecular-weight substances, such as plasma proteins and hyaluronan; immune cells, such as lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells; and colloidal particles, such as carbon particles, bacteria, and tattoo dye. Interstitially injected colloidal particles are known to accumulate in the regional lymph nodes. This phenomenon is applied to find sentinel lymph nodes in cancer patients. Lymph flow rate and composition are influenced by interstitial fluid, lymphatic pump activity, and intra-lymphatic pressure. Lymph composition is changed during its flow downstream. In this review, the main focus is on the mechanisms of lymph formation at the initial lymphatics and lymph transport through the collecting lymphatics and lymph nodes. (*English Translation of J Jpn Coll Angiol, 2008, 48: 113-123.).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fumitaka Ikomi
- Department of Physiology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Wiig H, Swartz MA. Interstitial Fluid and Lymph Formation and Transport: Physiological Regulation and Roles in Inflammation and Cancer. Physiol Rev 2012; 92:1005-60. [PMID: 22811424 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00037.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 443] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The interstitium describes the fluid, proteins, solutes, and the extracellular matrix (ECM) that comprise the cellular microenvironment in tissues. Its alterations are fundamental to changes in cell function in inflammation, pathogenesis, and cancer. Interstitial fluid (IF) is created by transcapillary filtration and cleared by lymphatic vessels. Herein we discuss the biophysical, biomechanical, and functional implications of IF in normal and pathological tissue states from both fluid balance and cell function perspectives. We also discuss analysis methods to access IF, which enables quantification of the cellular microenvironment; such methods have demonstrated, for example, that there can be dramatic gradients from tissue to plasma during inflammation and that tumor IF is hypoxic and acidic compared with subcutaneous IF and plasma. Accumulated recent data show that IF and its convection through the interstitium and delivery to the lymph nodes have many and diverse biological effects, including in ECM reorganization, cell migration, and capillary morphogenesis as well as in immunity and peripheral tolerance. This review integrates the biophysical, biomechanical, and biological aspects of interstitial and lymph fluid and its transport in tissue physiology, pathophysiology, and immune regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helge Wiig
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; and Laboratory of Lymphatic and Cancer Bioengineering, Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Melody A. Swartz
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; and Laboratory of Lymphatic and Cancer Bioengineering, Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
MORI Y, UMEDA M, FUKUNAGA M, OGASAWARA K, YOSHIOKA Y. MR Contrast in Mouse Lymph Nodes with Subcutaneous Administration of Iron Oxide Particles: Size Dependency. Magn Reson Med Sci 2011; 10:219-27. [DOI: 10.2463/mrms.10.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
|
14
|
Bachmann MF, Jennings GT. Vaccine delivery: a matter of size, geometry, kinetics and molecular patterns. Nat Rev Immunol 2010; 10:787-96. [DOI: 10.1038/nri2868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1300] [Impact Index Per Article: 92.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
15
|
Brookes ZLS, Mansart A, McGown CC, Ross JJ, Reilly CS, Brown NJ. Macromolecular leak from extrasplenic lymphatics during endotoxemia. Lymphat Res Biol 2010; 7:131-7. [PMID: 19778200 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2008.1019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The spleen has an important physiological role in maintaining blood volume; this study aimed to determine whether during pathophysiological circumstances, namely endotoxemia, the extrasplenic pathway is dysfunctional. We hypothesize that increased 'leakiness' of lymphatics in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) provides a route for loss of protein-rich fluid into third spaces and prevents the spleen from maintaining blood volume homeostasis. METHODS AND RESULTS Male Wistar rats (200-280 g, n = 24) were anesthetized with thiopental (40-90 mg x kg(-1) x hr(-1), i.v.) to study the extrasplenic (vessels in mesentery adjoining the spleen) and ileal mesenteric microcirculation using fluorescently labeled albumin (66 KDa FITC-BSA, 0.02 g.100 g(-1), i.v.) with intravital microscopy. LPS (150 microg x kg(-1) x hr(-1) i.v.) induced constriction of rat extrasplenic venules (-14 +/- 2.4% from 40.4 +/- 7.8 microm, p < 0.05) and no change in arteriolar diameter (-4.6 +/- 4.7% from 32.6 +/- 4.3 microm). As the spleen is freely permeable to protein, a greater increase in venular versus arteriolar extrasplenic resistance increases intrasplenic capillary hydrostatic pressure, leading to fluid efflux into the lymphatics, draining the spleen. In agreement we report here increased extrasplenic venular resistance with LPS and lymphatic dilation to accommodate this fluid (13.5 +/- 6% from 18.5 +/- 4.8 microm, p < 0.05). However, the extrasplenic pathway then appeared to dysfunction, with macromolecular leak from extrasplenic venules (24.6 +/- 6.4%, p < 0.05) and lymphatics (12.1 +/- 3.4%, p < 0.05), indicated by increased interstitial FITC-BSA fluorescence. This was less than from ileal mesenteric venules (324 +/- 32%, p < 0.05). There was a concurrent decrease in mean arterial pressure (T(180): -15.1 +/- 6.9% from MAP of 130.3 +/- 8.8 mmHg at T(0), p < 0.05). CONCLUSION Lymphatics are generally considered to demonstrate unidirectional and inward uptake of large molecules. However, during endotoxemia, we have demonstrated that extrasplenic lymphatics also allow the leakage of large protein molecules out into interstitial spaces. Fluid losses from extrasplenic lymphatics could therefore contribute to hypovolemia and hypotension associated with sepsis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zoë L S Brookes
- Academic Unit of Anaesthesia, University of Sheffield , Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, and Health Sciences, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Scallan J, Huxley VH, Korthuis RJ. Capillary Fluid Exchange: Regulation, Functions, and Pathology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.4199/c00006ed1v01y201002isp003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
17
|
Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Bruyère
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development BiologyGroupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliqué-Cancer (GIGA-Cancer)University of LiegeLiegeBelgium
| | - Agnès Noël
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development BiologyGroupe Interdisciplinaire de Génoprotéomique Appliqué-Cancer (GIGA-Cancer)University of LiegeLiegeBelgium
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Effect of cyclic AMP on barrier function of human lymphatic microvascular tubes. Microvasc Res 2008; 76:46-51. [PMID: 18440562 DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2008.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2007] [Revised: 02/14/2008] [Accepted: 02/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This work examines the effect of cyclic AMP (cAMP) on the in vitro barrier function of tubes of human dermal lymphatic microvascular endothelial cells (LECs). Under baseline conditions, the barrier function of LEC tubes was weak, with diffusional permeability coefficients to bovine serum albumin and 10 kDa dextran of 1.4(-0.6)(+0.9)x10(-6) cm/s and 1.7(-0.5)(+0.8)x10(-6) cm/s (geometric mean+/-95% CI), respectively, and 1.2+/-0.5 (mean+/-95% CI) focal leaks per mm. Exposure to low concentrations (3 microM) of a cell-permeant analog of cAMP did not alter the barrier function. Exposure to higher concentrations (80 and 400 microM) and/or the phosphodiesterase inhibitor Ro-20-1724 (20 microM) lowered permeabilities and the number of focal leaks, and increased the selectivity of the barrier. Decreased permeabilities were accompanied by an increase in continuous VE-cadherin staining at cell-cell borders. Exposure to 1 mM 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine, an inhibitor of adenylate cyclase, did not increase permeabilities. LECs expressed the lymphatic-specific master transcription factor Prox-1, regardless of whether barrier function was weak or strong. Our results indicate that the permeability of LEC tubes in vitro responds to cAMP in a manner similar to that well-described for the permeability of blood microvessels.
Collapse
|
19
|
Breslin JW, Yuan SY, Wu MH. VEGF-C alters barrier function of cultured lymphatic endothelial cells through a VEGFR-3-dependent mechanism. Lymphat Res Biol 2007; 5:105-13. [PMID: 17935478 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2007.1004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The lymphatic endothelium is an important semi-permeable barrier separating lymph from the interstitial space. However, there is currently a limited understanding of the lymphatic endothelial barrier and the mechanisms of lymph formation. The objectives of this study were to investigate the potential active role of lymphatic endothelial cells in barrier regulation, and to test whether the endothelial cell agonists VEGF-A and VEGF-C can alter lymphatic endothelial barrier function. METHODS AND RESULTS Cultured adult human dermal microlymphatic endothelial cells (HMLEC-d) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were respectively used as models of lymphatic and vascular endothelium. Transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) of endothelial monolayers served as an index of barrier function. Cells were treated with VEGF-A, VEGF-C, or the VEGFR-3 selective mutant VEGF-C156S. MAZ51 was used to inhibit VEGFR-3 signaling. The results show that while VEGF-A causes a time-dependent decrease in TER in HUVEC, there is no response in HMLEC-d. In contrast, VEGF-C and VEGF-C156S cause a similar decrease in TER in HMLEC-d that is not observed in HUVEC. These results corresponded to the protein expression of VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 in these cell types, determined by Western blotting. In addition, the VEGF-C- and VEGF-C156S-induced TER changes were inhibited by MAZ51. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate differential responses of the lymphatic and vascular endothelial barriers to VEGF-A and VEGF-C. Furthermore, our data suggest that VEGF-C alters lymphatic endothelial function through a mechanism involving VEGFR-3.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome W Breslin
- Department of Surgery, Division of Research, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|