Sex differences in the development of airway epithelial tolerance to naphthalene

Impact of aging and ergothioneine pre-treatment on naphthalene toxicity in lung

Aging increases susceptibility to lung disease, but the topic is understudied, especially in relation to environmental exposures with the bulk of rodent studies using young adults. This study aims to define the pulmonary toxicity of naphthalene (NA) and the impacts of a dietary antioxidant, ergothioneine (ET), in the liver and lungs of middle-aged mice. NA causes a well-characterized pattern of conducting airway epithelial injury in the lung in young adult mice, but NA's toxicity has not been characterized in middle-aged mice, aged 1-1.5 years. ET is a dietary antioxidant that is synthesized by bacteria and fungi. The ET transporter (ETT), SLC22A4, is upregulated in tissues that experience high levels of oxidative stress. In this study, middle-aged male and female C57BL/6 J mice, maintained on an ET-free synthetic diet from conception, were gavaged with 70 mg/kg of ET for five consecutive days. On day 8, the mice were exposed to a single intraperitoneal NA dose of 50, 100, 150, or 200 mg/kg. At 24 hours post NA injection samples were collected and analyzed for ET concentration and reduced (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) concentrations. Histopathology, morphometry, and gene expression were examined. Histopathology of mice exposed to 100 mg/kg of NA suggests reduction in toxicity in the terminal airways of both male (p ≤ 0.001) and female (p ≤ 0.05) middle-aged mice by the ET pretreatment. Our findings in this study are the first to document the toxicity of NA in middle-aged mice and show some efficacy of ET in reducing NA toxicity.

Chronic low-level JUUL aerosol exposure causes pulmonary immunologic, transcriptomic, and proteomic changes

E-cigarettes currently divide public opinion, with some considering them a useful tool for smoking cessation and while others are concerned with potentially adverse health consequences. However, it may take decades to fully understand the effects of e-cigarette use in humans given their relative newness on the market. This highlights the need for comprehensive preclinical studies investigating the effects of e-cigarette exposure on health outcomes. Here, we investigated the impact of chronic, low-level JUUL aerosol exposure on multiple lung outcomes. JUUL is a brand of e-cigarettes popular with youth and young adults. To replicate human exposures, 8- to 12-week-old male and female C57BL/6J mice were exposed to commercially available JUUL products (containing 59 mg/ml nicotine). Mice were exposed to room air, PG/VG, or JUUL daily for 4 weeks. After the exposure period, inflammatory markers were assessed via qRT-PCR, multiplex cytokine assays, and differential cell count. Proteomic and transcriptomic analyses were also performed on samples isolated from the lavage of the lungs; this included unbiased analysis of proteins contained within extracellular vesicles (EVs). Mice exposed to JUUL aerosols for 4 weeks had significantly increased neutrophil and lymphocyte populations in the BAL and some changes in cytokine mRNA expression. However, BAL cytokines did not change. Proteomic and transcriptomic analysis revealed significant changes in numerous biological pathways including neutrophil degranulation, PPAR signaling, and xenobiotic metabolism. Thus, e-cigarettes are not inert and can cause significant cellular and molecular changes in the lungs.

Comparison of acute respiratory epithelial toxicity for 4-Methylimidazole and naphthalene administered by oral gavage in B6C3F1 mice

4-Methylimidazole (4MEI) is a contaminant in food and consumer products. Pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenicity following chronic dietary exposures to 4MEI is a regulatory concern based on previous rodent studies. This study examined acute pulmonary toxicity in B6C3F1 mice from 6 h to 5 days after oral gavage with a single dose of 150 mg/kg 4MEI, a double dose delivered 6 h apart, or vehicle controls. Oral gavage of 150 mg/kg naphthalene, a prototypical Club cell toxicant, was used as a positive control. Intrapulmonary conducting airway cytotoxicity was assessed in fixed-pressure inflated lungs using qualitative histopathology scoring, quantitative morphometric measurement of vacuolated and exfoliating epithelial cells, and immunohistochemistry. 4MEI treatment did not change markers of cytotoxicity including the mass of vacuolated epithelium, the thickness of the epithelium, or the distributions of epithelial proteins: secretoglobin 1A1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and myeloperoxidase. 4MEI and vehicle controls caused slight cytotoxicity with rare vacuolization of the epithelium relative to the severe bronchiolar epithelial cell toxicity found in the naphthalene exposed mice at terminal bronchioles, intrapulmonary airways, or airway bifurcations. In summary, 4MEI caused minimal airway epithelial toxicity without characteristic Club Cell toxicity when compared to naphthalene, a canonical Club Cell toxicant.

The role of the non-ciliated bronchiolar cell in tolerance to inhaled vanadium of the bronchiolar epithelium

The Non-Ciliated Bronchiolar Cell (NCBC) is responsible for the defense and maintenance of the bronchiolar epithelium. Several cellular defense mechanisms have been associated with an increase in the secretion of CC16 and changes in the phenotype of the cell; these mechanisms could be linked to tolerance to the damage due to exposure to inhaled Particulate Matter (PM) of the epithelium. These defense mechanisms have not been sufficiently explored. In this article, we studied the response of the NCBC to inhaled vanadium, an element which adheres to PM. This response was measured by the changes in the phenotype of the NCBC and the secretion of CC16 in a mouse model. Mice were exposed in two phases to different vanadium concentrations; 1.27 mg/m³ in the first phase and 2.56 mg/m³ in the second phase. Mice were sacrificed on the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 8th weeks. In the second phase, we observed the following: sloughing of the NCBC, hyperplasia and small inflammatory foci remained without changes and that the expression of CC16 was higher in this phase than in phase I. We also observed a change in the phenotype with a slow decrease in both phases. The increase in the secretion of CC16 and the phenotype reversion could be due to the anti-inflammatory activity of CC16. The changes observed in the second phase could be attributed to the tolerance to inhaled vanadium.

Extended Analysis and Evidence Integration of Chloroprene as a Human Carcinogen

β-Chloroprene is used in the production of polychloroprene, a synthetic rubber. In 2010, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published the Integrated Risk Information System "Toxicological Review of Chloroprene," concluding that chloroprene was "likely to be carcinogenic to humans." This was based on findings from a 1998 National Toxicology Program (NTP) study showing multiple tumors within and across animal species; results from occupational epidemiological studies; a proposed mutagenic mode of action; and structural similarities with 1,3-butadiene and vinyl chloride. Using mouse data from the NTP study and assuming a mutagenic mode of action, EPA calculated an inhalation unit risk (IUR) for chloroprene of 5 × 10^-4 per µg/m³ . This is among the highest IURs for chemicals classified by IARC or EPA as known or probable human carcinogens and orders of magnitude higher than the IURs for carcinogens such as vinyl chloride, benzene, and 1,3-butadiene. Due to differences in pharmacokinetics, mice appear to be uniquely responsive to chloroprene exposure compared to other animals, including humans, which is consistent with the lack of evidence of carcinogenicity in robust occupational epidemiological studies. We evaluated and integrated all lines of evidence for chloroprene carcinogenicity to assess whether the 2010 EPA IUR could be scientifically substantiated. Due to clear interspecies differences in carcinogenic response to chloroprene, we applied a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for chloroprene to calculate a species-specific internal dose (amount metabolized/gram of lung tissue) and derived an IUR that is over 100-fold lower than the 2010 EPA IUR. Therefore, we recommend that EPA's IUR be updated.

Incorporation of in vitro metabolism data and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling in a risk assessment for chloroprene

Objective: To develop a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for chloroprene in the mouse, rat and human, relying only on in vitro data to estimate tissue metabolism rates and partitioning, and to apply the model to calculate an inhalation unit risk (IUR) for chloroprene.Materials and methods: Female B6C3F1 mice were the most sensitive species/gender for lung tumors in the 2-year bioassay conducted with chloroprene. The PBPK model included tissue metabolism rate constants for chloroprene estimated from results of in vitro gas uptake studies using liver and lung microsomes. To assess the validity of the PBPK model, a 6-hr, nose-only chloroprene inhalation study was conducted with female B6C3F1 mice in which both chloroprene blood concentrations and ventilation rates were measured. The PBPK model was then used to predict dose measures - amounts of chloroprene metabolized in lungs per unit time - in mice and humans.Results: The mouse PBPK model accurately predicted in vivo pharmacokinetic data from the 6-hr, nose-only chloroprene inhalation study. The PBPK model was used to conduct a cancer risk assessment based on metabolism of chloroprene to reactive epoxides in the lung, the target tissue in mice. The IUR was over100-fold lower than the IUR from the EPA Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), which was based on inhaled chloroprene concentration. The different result from the PBPK model risk assessment arises from use of the more relevant tissue dose metric, amount metabolized, rather than inhaled concentrationDiscussion and conclusions: The revised chloroprene PBPK model is based on the best available science, including new test animal in vivo validation, updated literature review and a Markov-Chain Monte Carlo analysis to assess parameter uncertainty. Relying on both mouse and human metabolism data also provides an important advancement in the use of quantitative in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (QIVIVE). Inclusion of the best available science is especially important when deriving a toxicity value based on species extrapolation for the potential carcinogenicity of a reactive metabolite.

Naphthalene DNA Adduct Formation and Tolerance in the Lung

Naphthalene (NA) is a respiratory toxicant and possible human carcinogen. NA is a ubiquitous combustion product and significant component of jet fuel. The National Toxicology Program found that NA forms tumors in two species, in rats (nose) and mice (lung). However, it has been argued that NA does not pose a cancer risk to humans because NA is bioactivated by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase enzymes that have very high efficiency in the lung tissue of rodents but low efficiency in the lung tissue of humans. It is thought that NA carcinogenesis in rodents is related to repeated cycles of lung epithelial injury and repair, an indirect mechanism. Repeated in vivo exposure to NA leads to development of tolerance, with the emergence of cells more resistant to NA insult. We tested the hypothesis that tolerance involves reduced susceptibility to the formation of NA-DNA adducts. NA-DNA adduct formation in tolerant mice was examined in individual, metabolically-active mouse airways exposed ex vivo to 250 μΜ 14C-NA. Ex vivo dosing was used since it had been done previously and the act of creating a radioactive aerosol of a potential carcinogen posed too many safety and regulatory obstacles. Following extensive rinsing to remove unbound 14C-NA, DNA was extracted and 14C-NA-DNA adducts were quantified by AMS. The tolerant mice appeared to have slightly lower NA-DNA adduct levels than non-tolerant controls, but intra-group variations were large and the difference was statistically insignificant. It appears the tolerance may be more related to other mechanisms, such as NA-protein interactions in the airway, than DNA-adduct formation.

Lung regeneration after toxic injury is improved in absence of dioxin receptor

Recent experimental evidences from cellular systems and from mammalian and non-mammalian animal models highlight novel functions for the aryl hydrocarbon/dioxin receptor (AhR) in maintaining cell differentiation and tissue homeostasis. Notably, AhR depletion stimulates an undifferentiated and pluripotent phenotype likely associated to a mesenchymal transition in epithelial cells and to increased primary tumorigenesis and metastasis in melanoma. In this work, we have used a lung model of epithelial regeneration to investigate whether AhR regulates proper tissue repair by adjusting the expansion of undifferentiated stem-like cells. AhR-null mice developed a faster and more efficient repair of the lung bronchiolar epithelium upon naphthalene injury that required increased cell proliferation and the earlier activation of stem-like Clara, Basal and neuroepithelial cells precursors. Increased basal content in multipotent Sca1⁺/CD31^-/CD4^- cells and in cells expressing pluripotency factors NANOG and OCT4 could also improve re-epithelialization in AhR-null lungs. The reduced response of AhR-deficient lungs to Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) repression shortly after injury may also help their improved bronchiolar epithelium repair. These results support a role for AhR in the regenerative response against toxins, and open the possibility of modulating its activation level to favor recovery from lesions caused by environmental contaminants.

Preparation of Specific Compartments of the Lungs for Pathologic and Biochemical Analysis of Toxicologic Responses

This unit focuses on protocols for assessing microenvironment-specific responses in the thoracic lung tissues. Aspects of the entire respiratory system serve as potential targets for candidate toxicants, but each candidate toxicant may impact distinct sites due to differential distribution of either the toxicant or the target cells. Within the conducting airways, the composition of resident cell populations and the metabolic capabilities of the cell populations vary greatly. Thus, studies of this region of the lung require unique, site-selective methods to clearly define the toxic response. Without site-specific sampling, as described in this chapter, the experimental limit of detection for toxicant effects in conducting airways is weakened because differences unrelated to treatment, but related to location, may dominate the response. The protocols included here allow assessment of toxicological responses in the tracheobronchial airways and the gas exchange area of the lung, with specific application to laboratory mammals. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Novel multi-functional europium-doped gadolinium oxide nanoparticle aerosols facilitate the study of deposition in the developing rat lung

Ambient ultrafine particulate matter (UPM), less than 100 nm in size, has been linked to the development and exacerbation of pulmonary diseases. Age differences in susceptibility to UPM may be due to a difference in delivered dose as well as age-dependent differences in lung biology and clearance. In this study, we developed and characterized aerosol exposures to novel metal oxide nanoparticles containing lanthanides to study particle deposition in the developing postnatal rat lung. Neonatal, juvenile and adult rats (1, 3 and 12 weeks old) were nose only exposed to 380 μg m(-3) of ∼30 nm europium doped gadolinium oxide nanoparticles (Gd2O3:Eu(3+)) for 1 h. The deposited dose in the nose, extrapulmonary airways and lungs was determined using inductively-coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. The dose of deposited particles was significantly greater in the juvenile rats at 2.22 ng per g body weight compared to 1.47 ng per g and 0.097 ng per g for the adult and neonate rats, respectively. Toxicity was investigated in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) by quantifying recovered cell types, and measuring lactate dehydrogenase activity and total protein. The toxicity data suggests that the lanthanide particles were not acutely toxic or inflammatory with no increase in neutrophils or lactate dehydrogenase activity at any age. Juvenile and adult rats had the same mass of deposited NPs per gram of lung tissue, while neonatal rats had significantly less NPs deposited per gram of lung tissue. The current study demonstrates the utility of novel lanthanide-based nanoparticles to study inhaled particle deposition in vivo and has important implications for nanoparticles delivery to the developing lung either as therapies or as a portion of particulate matter air pollution.

Hypothesis-based weight-of-evidence evaluation and risk assessment for naphthalene carcinogenesis

Inhalation of naphthalene causes olfactory epithelial nasal tumors in rats (but not in mice) and benign lung adenomas in mice (but not in rats). The limited available human data have not identified an association between naphthalene exposure and increased respiratory cancer risk. Assessing naphthalene's carcinogenicity in humans, therefore, depends entirely on experimental evidence from rodents. We evaluated the respiratory carcinogenicity of naphthalene in rodents, and its potential relevance to humans, using our Hypothesis-Based Weight-of-Evidence (HBWoE) approach. We systematically and comparatively reviewed data relevant to key elements in the hypothesized modes of action (MoA) to determine which is best supported by the available data, allowing all of the data from each realm of investigation to inform interpretation of one another. Our analysis supports a mechanism that involves initial metabolism of naphthalene to the epoxide, followed by GSH depletion, cytotoxicity, chronic inflammation, regenerative hyperplasia, and tumor formation, with possible weak genotoxicity from downstream metabolites occurring only at high cytotoxic doses, strongly supporting a non-mutagenic threshold MoA in the rat nose. We also conducted a dose-response analysis, based on the likely MoA, which suggests that the rat nasal MoA is not relevant in human respiratory tissues at typical environmental exposures. Our analysis illustrates how a thorough WoE evaluation can be used to support a MoA, even when a mechanism of action cannot be fully elucidated. A non-mutagenic threshold MoA for naphthalene-induced rat nasal tumors should be considered as a basis to determine human relevance and to guide regulatory and risk-management decisions.

Women and Lung Disease. Sex Differences and Global Health Disparities

There is growing evidence that a number of pulmonary diseases affect women differently and with a greater degree of severity than men. The causes for such sex disparity is the focus of this Blue Conference Perspective review, which explores basic cellular and molecular mechanisms, life stages, and clinical outcomes based on environmental, sociocultural, occupational, and infectious scenarios, as well as medical health beliefs. Owing to the breadth of issues related to women and lung disease, we present examples of both basic and clinical concepts that may be the cause for pulmonary disease disparity in women. These examples include those diseases that predominantly affect women, as well as the rising incidence among women for diseases traditionally occurring in men, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Sociocultural implications of pulmonary disease attributable to biomass burning and infectious diseases among women in low- to middle-income countries are reviewed, as are disparities in respiratory health among sexual minority women in high-income countries. The implications of the use of complementary and alternative medicine by women to influence respiratory disease are examined, and future directions for research on women and respiratory health are provided.

Pulmonary effects of silver nanoparticle size, coating, and dose over time upon intratracheal instillation

Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) can be found in myriad consumer products, medical equipment/supplies, and public spaces. However, questions remain regarding the risks associated with Ag NP exposure. As part of a consortium-based effort to better understand these nanomaterials, this study examined how Ag NPs with varying sizes and coatings affect pulmonary responses at different time-points. Four types of Ag NPs were tested: 20 nm (C20) and 110 nm (C110) citrate-stabilized NPs, and 20 nm (P20) and 110 nm (P110) PVP-stabilized NPs. Male, Sprague Dawley rats were intratracheally instilled with Ag NPs (0, 0.1, 0.5, or 1.0 mg/kg bodyweight [BW]), and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissues were obtained at 1, 7, and 21 days post-exposure for analysis of BAL cells and histopathology. All Ag NP types produced significantly elevated polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) in BALF on Days 1, 7, and/or 21 at the 0.5 and/or 1.0 mg/kg BW dose(s). Histology of animals exposed to 1.0 mg/kg BW Ag NPs showed patchy, focal, centriacinar inflammation for all time-points; though neutrophils, macrophages, and/or monocytes were also found in the airway submucosa and perivascular regions at Days 1 and 7. Confocal microscopy of ethidium homodimer-stained lungs at Day 1 showed dead/dying cells at branch points along the main airway. By Day 21, only animals exposed to the high dose of C110 or P110 exhibited significant BALF neutrophilia and marked cellular debris in alveolar airspaces. Findings suggest that 110 nm Ag NPs may produce lasting effects past Day 21 post instillation.

Instillation versus inhalation of multiwalled carbon nanotubes: exposure-related health effects, clearance, and the role of particle characteristics

Inhaled multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) may cause adverse pulmonary responses due to their nanoscale, fibrous morphology and/or biopersistance. This study tested multiple factors (dose, time, physicochemical characteristics, and administration method) shown to affect MWCNT toxicity with the hypothesis that these factors will influence significantly different responses upon MWCNT exposure. The study is unique in that (1) multiple administration methods were tested using particles from the same stock; (2) bulk MWCNT formulations had few differences (metal content, surface area/functionalization); and (3) MWCNT retention was quantified using a specialized approach for measuring unlabeled MWCNTs in rodent lungs. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to original (O), purified (P), and carboxylic acid functionalized (F) MWCNTs via intratracheal instillation and inhalation. Blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and lung tissues were collected at postexposure days 1 and 21 for quantifying biological responses and MWCNTs in lung tissues by programmed thermal analysis. At day 1, MWCNT instillation produced significant BALF neutrophilia and MWCNT-positive macrophages. Instilled O- and P-MWCNTs produced significant inflammation in lung tissues, which resolved by day 21 despite MWCNT retention. MWCNT inhalation produced no BALF neutrophilia and no significant histopathology past day 1. However, on days 1 and 21 postinhalation of nebulized MWCNTs, significantly increased numbers of MWCNT-positive macrophages were observed in BALF. Results suggest (1) MWCNTs produce transient inflammation if any despite persistence in the lungs; (2) instilled O-MWCNTs cause more inflammation than P- or F-MWCNTs; and (3) MWCNT suspension media produce strikingly different effects on physicochemical particle characteristics and pulmonary responses.

A murine model of airway fibrosis induced by repeated naphthalene exposure

The airway epithelium serves as a biological barrier essential for host defense against inhaled pollutants. While chronic epithelial injury, commonly associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome, often results in airway fibrosis, limited animal models of airway fibrosis have been established. Club cells (Clara cells) in the small airways represent an important population of epithelial progenitor cells and also the principal site of localization of the cytochrome P-450 monooxygenase system, which metabolically activates xenobiotic chemicals such as naphthalene by converting them to toxic epoxide intermediates. We hypothesized that repeated exposure to naphthalene may cause prolonged loss of club cells, triggering aberrant local epithelial repair mechanisms that lead to peribronchial fibrosis. We administered intraperitoneal injections of naphthalene to C57/BL6J mice once a week for 14 consecutive weeks. Repeated club cell injury caused by naphthalene triggered regional hyperproliferation of epithelial progenitor cells, while other regions remained denuded or squamated, resulting in fibroblast proliferation and peribronchial collagen deposition associated with upregulation of the fibrogenic cytokines transforming growth factor-β and connective tissue growth factor. The total collagen content of the lung assessed by measurement of the hydroxyproline content was also increased after repeated exposure to naphthalene. These results lend support to the relevance of repeated injury of airway epithelial cells as a trigger for resting fibroblast proliferation and airway fibrosis. This model of airway fibrosis is simple and easy to reproduce, and may be expected to advance our understanding of the pathogenesis and potential treatment of airway fibrotic disorders.

Sex differences in the acute nasal antioxidant/antielectrophilic response of the rat to inhaled naphthalene

Naphthalene is a nasal carcinogen, inducing respiratory adenomas in male and olfactory neuroblastomas in female rats, respectively. The reasons for the site and sex-specific tumorigenic response are unknown. Naphthalene is bioactivated to electrophilic metabolites; cytotoxicity followed by regenerative cell proliferation is likely involved in the tumorigenic response. To examine sex differences in the acute nasal response to naphthalene, male and female F344 rats were nose-only exposed to 0, 1, 3, 10, or 30 ppm naphthalene vapor for 4 or 6 h. Following exposure, respiratory/transitional mucosa (RTM) and olfactory mucosa (OM) were isolated and analyzed for markers of oxidant/electrophilic stress and/or toxicity, including reduced/oxidized glutathione levels (GSH/GSSG), mRNA levels of electrophile-responsive genes, and epithelial cytoxicity (as measured by membrane permeability to ethidium homodimer-1). Naphthalene caused significant depletion of GSH in RTM and OM with no increase in GSSG. Cytotoxicity was apparent at concentrations of 15 and 30 ppm. No consistent sex differences were observed in these responses. Sex differences were observed in the induction of antielectrophilic genes in OM: glutamyl cysteine ligase (catalytic subunit) (Gclc), NADPH quinone oxidase 1 (Nqo1), and heme oxygenase 1 (Hmox1) were all induced to a greater extent in the male OM compared with the female. No consistent sex differences were observed in the RTM. Although the mechanism of the sex difference in the RTM adenoma response remains enigmatic, sex differences in the induction of antioxidant/electrophile-responsive genes may contribute to the heightened sensitivity of the female OM to the carcinogenic effects of naphthalene.

Combustion derived ultrafine particles induce cytochrome P-450 expression in specific lung compartments in the developing neonatal and adult rat

Vehicle exhaust is rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and can be a dominant contributor to ultrafine urban particulate matter (PM). Exposure to ultrafine PM is correlated with respiratory infections and asthmatic symptoms in young children. The lung undergoes substantial growth, alveolarization, and cellular maturation within the first years of life, which may be impacted by environmental pollutants such as PM. PAHs in PM can serve as ligands for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) that induces expression of certain isozymes in the cytochrome P-450 superfamily, such as CYP1A1 and CYP1B1, localized in specific lung cell types. Although AhR activation and induction has been widely studied, its context within PM exposure and impact on the developing lung is poorly understood. In response, we have developed a replicable ultrafine premixed flame particle (PFP) generating system and used in vitro and in vivo models to define PM effects on AhR activation in the developing lung. We exposed 7-day neonatal and adult rats to a single 6-h PFP exposure and determined that PFPs cause significant parenchymal toxicity in neonates. PFPs contain weak AhR agonists that upregulate AhR-xenobiotic response element activity and expression and are capable inducers of CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 expression in both ages with different spatial and temporal patterns. Neonatal CYP1A1 expression was muted and delayed compared with adults, possibly because of differences in the enzyme maturation. We conclude that the inability of neonates to sufficiently adapt in response to PFP exposure may, in part, explain their susceptibility to PFP and urban ultrafine PM.

Matrix metalloproteinase-7 coordinates airway epithelial injury response and differentiation of ciliated cells

Matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP7) expression is quickly up-regulated after injury, and functions to regulate wound repair and various mucosal immune processes. We evaluated the global transcriptional response of airway epithelial cells from wild-type and Mmp7-null mice cultured at an air-liquid interface. The analysis of differentially expressed genes between genotypes after injury revealed an enrichment of functional categories associated with inflammation, cilia, and differentiation. Because these analyses suggested that MMP7 regulated ciliated cell formation, we evaluated the recovery of the airway epithelium in wild-type and Mmp7-null mice in vivo after naphthalene injury, which revealed augmented ciliated cell formation in the absence of MMP7. Moreover, in vitro studies evaluating cell differentiation in air-liquid interface cultures also showed faster ciliated cell production under Mmp7-null conditions compared with wild-type conditions. These studies identified a new role for MMP7 in attenuating ciliated cell differentiation during wound repair.

Age-specific effects on rat lung glutathione and antioxidant enzymes after inhaling ultrafine soot

Vehicle exhaust is rich in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and is a dominant contributor to urban particulate pollution (PM). Exposure to PM is linked to respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in susceptible populations, such as children. PM can contribute to the development and exacerbation of asthma, and this is thought to occur because of the presence of electrophiles in PM or through electrophile generation via the metabolism of PAHs. Glutathione (GSH), an abundant intracellular antioxidant, confers cytoprotection through conjugation of electrophiles and reduction of reactive oxygen species. GSH-dependent phase II detoxifying enzymes glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase facilitate metabolism and conjugation, respectively. Ambient particulates are highly variable in composition, which complicates systematic study. In response, we have developed a replicable ultrafine premixed flame particle (PFP)-generating system for in vivo studies. To determine particle effects in the developing lung, 7-day-old neonatal and adult rats inhaled 22 μg/m(3) PFP during a single 6-hour exposure. Pulmonary GSH and related phase II detoxifying gene and protein expression were evaluated 2, 24, and 48 hours after exposure. Neonates exhibited significant depletion of GSH despite higher initial baseline levels of GSH. Furthermore, we observed attenuated induction of phase II enzymes (glutamate cysteine ligase, glutathione reductase, glutathione S-transferase, and glutathione peroxidase) in neonates compared with adult rats. We conclude that developing neonates have a limited ability to deviate from their normal developmental pattern that precludes adequate adaptation to environmental pollutants, which results in enhanced cytotoxicity from inhaled PM.