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López-Posadas R, Bagley DC, Pardo-Pastor C, Ortiz-Zapater E. The epithelium takes the stage in asthma and inflammatory bowel diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 12:1258859. [PMID: 38529406 PMCID: PMC10961468 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2024.1258859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The epithelium is a dynamic barrier and the damage to this epithelial layer governs a variety of complex mechanisms involving not only epithelial cells but all resident tissue constituents, including immune and stroma cells. Traditionally, diseases characterized by a damaged epithelium have been considered "immunological diseases," and research efforts aimed at preventing and treating these diseases have primarily focused on immuno-centric therapeutic strategies, that often fail to halt or reverse the natural progression of the disease. In this review, we intend to focus on specific mechanisms driven by the epithelium that ensure barrier function. We will bring asthma and Inflammatory Bowel Diseases into the spotlight, as we believe that these two diseases serve as pertinent examples of epithelium derived pathologies. Finally, we will argue how targeting the epithelium is emerging as a novel therapeutic strategy that holds promise for addressing these chronic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío López-Posadas
- Department of Medicine 1, University Hospital of Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Immuntherapie, Friedrich-Alexander-Universtiy Eralngen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Dustin C. Bagley
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, New Hunt’s House, School of Basic and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos Pardo-Pastor
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, New Hunt’s House, School of Basic and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elena Ortiz-Zapater
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Instituto Investigación Hospital Clínico-INCLIVA, Valencia, Spain
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2
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Petit LMG, Belgacemi R, Ancel J, Saber Cherif L, Polette M, Perotin JM, Spassky N, Pilette C, Al Alam D, Deslée G, Dormoy V. Airway ciliated cells in adult lung homeostasis and COPD. Eur Respir Rev 2023; 32:230106. [PMID: 38056888 PMCID: PMC10698550 DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0106-2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cilia are organelles emanating from the cell surface, consisting of an axoneme of microtubules that extends from a basal body derived from the centrioles. They are either isolated and nonmotile (primary cilia), or grouped and motile (motile cilia). Cilia are at the centre of fundamental sensory processes and are involved in a wide range of human disorders. Pulmonary cilia include motile cilia lining the epithelial cells of the conductive airways to orchestrate mucociliary clearance, and primary cilia found on nondifferentiated epithelial and mesenchymal cells acting as sensors and cell cycle keepers. Whereas cilia are essential along the airways, their regulatory molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood, resulting in a lack of therapeutic strategies targeting their structure or functions. This review summarises the current knowledge on cilia in the context of lung homeostasis and COPD to provide a comprehensive overview of the (patho)biology of cilia in respiratory medicine with a particular emphasis on COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure M G Petit
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, INSERM, P3Cell UMR-S1250, SFR CAP-SANTE, Reims, France
| | - Randa Belgacemi
- Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Julien Ancel
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, INSERM, P3Cell UMR-S1250, SFR CAP-SANTE, Reims, France
- CHU Reims, Hôpital Maison Blanche, Service de Pneumologie, Reims, France
| | - Lynda Saber Cherif
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, INSERM, P3Cell UMR-S1250, SFR CAP-SANTE, Reims, France
| | - Myriam Polette
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, INSERM, P3Cell UMR-S1250, SFR CAP-SANTE, Reims, France
- CHU Reims, Hôpital Maison Blanche, Laboratoire de Biopathologie, Reims, France
| | - Jeanne-Marie Perotin
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, INSERM, P3Cell UMR-S1250, SFR CAP-SANTE, Reims, France
- CHU Reims, Hôpital Maison Blanche, Service de Pneumologie, Reims, France
| | - Nathalie Spassky
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Université Paris, Paris, France
| | - Charles Pilette
- Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL), Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research - Pole of Pneumology, ENT, Dermatology and Pulmonology Department, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Denise Al Alam
- Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Gaëtan Deslée
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, INSERM, P3Cell UMR-S1250, SFR CAP-SANTE, Reims, France
- CHU Reims, Hôpital Maison Blanche, Service de Pneumologie, Reims, France
| | - Valérian Dormoy
- Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, INSERM, P3Cell UMR-S1250, SFR CAP-SANTE, Reims, France
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3
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Rodenburg LW, Metzemaekers M, van der Windt IS, Smits SMA, den Hertog-Oosterhoff LA, Kruisselbrink E, Brunsveld JE, Michel S, de Winter-de Groot KM, van der Ent CK, Stadhouders R, Beekman JM, Amatngalim GD. Exploring intrinsic variability between cultured nasal and bronchial epithelia in cystic fibrosis. Sci Rep 2023; 13:18573. [PMID: 37903789 PMCID: PMC10616285 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-45201-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The nasal and bronchial epithelium are unified parts of the respiratory tract that are affected in the monogenic disorder cystic fibrosis (CF). Recent studies have uncovered that nasal and bronchial tissues exhibit intrinsic variability, including differences in mucociliary cell composition and expression of unique transcriptional regulatory proteins which relate to germ layer origin. In the present study, we explored whether intrinsic differences between nasal and bronchial epithelial cells persist in cell cultures and affect epithelial cell functioning in CF. Comparison of air-liquid interface (ALI) differentiated epithelial cells from subjects with CF revealed distinct mucociliary differentiation states of nasal and bronchial cultures. Moreover, using RNA sequencing we identified cell type-specific signature transcription factors in differentiated nasal and bronchial epithelial cells, some of which were already poised for expression in basal progenitor cells as evidenced by ATAC sequencing. Analysis of differentiated nasal and bronchial epithelial 3D organoids revealed distinct capacities for fluid secretion, which was linked to differences in ciliated cell differentiation. In conclusion, we show that unique phenotypical and functional features of nasal and bronchial epithelial cells persist in cell culture models, which can be further used to investigate the effects of tissue-specific features on upper and lower respiratory disease development in CF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa W Rodenburg
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Mieke Metzemaekers
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Isabelle S van der Windt
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Shannon M A Smits
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Loes A den Hertog-Oosterhoff
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Evelien Kruisselbrink
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jesse E Brunsveld
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sabine Michel
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Karin M de Winter-de Groot
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelis K van der Ent
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ralph Stadhouders
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Cell Biology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeffrey M Beekman
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Centre for Living Technologies, Alliance TU/e, WUR, UU, UMC Utrecht, 3584 CB, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gimano D Amatngalim
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Member of ERN-LUNG, 3584 EA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Regenerative Medicine Center Utrecht, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Pesticides and Their Impairing Effects on Epithelial Barrier Integrity, Dysbiosis, Disruption of the AhR Signaling Pathway and Development of Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012402. [PMID: 36293259 PMCID: PMC9604036 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The environmental and occupational risk we confront from agricultural chemicals increases as their presence in natural habitats rises to hazardous levels, building a major part of the exposome. This is of particular concern in low- and middle-income countries, such as Brazil, known as a leading producer of agricultural commodities and consumer of pesticides. As long as public policies continue to encourage the indiscriminate use of pesticides and governments continue to support this strategy instead of endorsing sustainable agricultural alternatives, the environmental burden that damages epithelial barriers will continue to grow. Chronic exposure to environmental contaminants in early life can affect crucial barrier tissue, such as skin epithelium, airways, and intestine, causing increased permeability, leaking, dysbiosis, and inflammation, with serious implications for metabolism and homeostasis. This vicious cycle of exposure to environmental factors and the consequent damage to the epithelial barrier has been associated with an increase in immune-mediated chronic inflammatory diseases. Understanding how the harmful effects of pesticides on the epithelial barrier impact cellular interactions mediated by endogenous sensors that coordinate a successful immune system represents a crucial challenge. In line with the epithelial barrier hypothesis, this narrative review reports the available evidence on the effects of pesticides on epithelial barrier integrity, dysbiosis, AhR signaling, and the consequent development of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases.
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Ehrhardt B, El-Merhie N, Kovacevic D, Schramm J, Bossen J, Roeder T, Krauss-Etschmann S. Airway remodeling: The Drosophila model permits a purely epithelial perspective. FRONTIERS IN ALLERGY 2022; 3:876673. [PMID: 36187164 PMCID: PMC9520053 DOI: 10.3389/falgy.2022.876673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Airway remodeling is an umbrella term for structural changes in the conducting airways that occur in chronic inflammatory lung diseases such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The pathobiology of remodeling involves multiple mesenchymal and lymphoid cell types and finally leads to a variety of hardly reversible changes such as hyperplasia of goblet cells, thickening of the reticular basement membrane, deposition of collagen, peribronchial fibrosis, angiogenesis and hyperplasia of bronchial smooth muscle cells. In order to develop solutions for prevention or innovative therapies, these complex processes must be understood in detail which requires their deconstruction into individual building blocks. In the present manuscript we therefore focus on the role of the airway epithelium and introduce Drosophila melanogaster as a model. The simple architecture of the flies’ airways as well as the lack of adaptive immunity allows to focus exclusively on the importance of the epithelium for the remodeling processes. We will review and discuss genetic and environmentally induced changes in epithelial structures and molecular responses and propose an integrated framework of research for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birte Ehrhardt
- Division of Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Diseases, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany
| | - Natalia El-Merhie
- Division of Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Diseases, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany
| | - Draginja Kovacevic
- Division of Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Diseases, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany
| | - Juliana Schramm
- Division of Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Diseases, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany
| | - Judith Bossen
- Division of Molecular Physiology, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Kiel, Germany
| | - Thomas Roeder
- Division of Molecular Physiology, Institute of Zoology, Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Kiel, Germany
| | - Susanne Krauss-Etschmann
- Division of Early Life Origins of Chronic Lung Diseases, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Kiel, Germany
- Correspondence: Susanne Krauss-Etschmann
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Kuwata F, Ohnishi H, Yamamoto N, Takezawa T, Yamashita M, Okuyama H, Hayashi Y, Yoshimatsu M, Kitada Y, Tada T, Kobayashi M, Omori K. Transplantation of human iPS cell-derived airway cells on vitrigel membrane into rat nasal cavity. Tissue Eng Part A 2021; 28:586-594. [PMID: 34841888 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2021.0071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The nasal mucosa functions as a frontline biological defense against various foreign substances and pathogens. Maintaining homeostasis of the nasal epithelium is necessary to promote good health. Nasal epithelia are constantly replaced under normal conditions. However, hereditary diseases, including primary ciliary dyskinesia and cystic fibrosis, can result in intractable dysfunction of the nasal mucosa. Since there is no treatment for this underlying condition, extrinsic manipulation is necessary to recover and maintain nasal epithelia in cases of hereditary diseases. In this study, we explored the use of airway epithelial cells (AECs), including multi-ciliated airway cells (MCACs), derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) on porcine atelocollagen vitrigel membranes, as a candidate of a therapeutic method for irreversible nasal epithelial disorders. To confirm the regenerative capacity of iPSC-derived AECs, we transplanted them into nasal cavities of nude rats. Although the transplanted cells were found within cysts isolated from the recipient nasal respiratory epithelia, they survived in some rats. Furthermore, the surviving cells were composed of multiple cell types similar to the human airway epithelia. The results could contribute to the development of novel transplantation-related technologies for the treatment of severe irreversible nasal epithelial disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumihiko Kuwata
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto, Japan;
| | - Hiroe Ohnishi
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto, Japan;
| | - Norio Yamamoto
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, 54 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan, 606-8501;
| | - Toshiaki Takezawa
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Division of Biotechnology, Ohwashi 1-2, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan, 305-8634;
| | - Masaru Yamashita
- Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medicine and Dental Sciences, 208512, Kagoshima, Kagoshima, Japan;
| | - Hideaki Okuyama
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto, Japan;
| | - Yasuyuki Hayashi
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto, Japan;
| | - Masayoshi Yoshimatsu
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto, Japan;
| | - Yuji Kitada
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto, Japan;
| | - Takeshi Tada
- Jikei University School of Medicine, 12839, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan;
| | - Masayoshi Kobayashi
- Mie University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38072, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Tsu, Mie, Japan;
| | - Koichi Omori
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, 38049, Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto, Japan;
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Bonser LR, Koh KD, Johansson K, Choksi SP, Cheng D, Liu L, Sun DI, Zlock LT, Eckalbar WL, Finkbeiner WE, Erle DJ. Flow-Cytometric Analysis and Purification of Airway Epithelial-Cell Subsets. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2021; 64:308-317. [PMID: 33196316 PMCID: PMC7909335 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2020-0149ma] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The human airway epithelium is essential in homeostasis, and epithelial dysfunction contributes to chronic airway disease. Development of flow-cytometric methods to characterize subsets of airway epithelial cells will enable further dissection of airway epithelial biology. Leveraging single-cell RNA-sequencing data in combination with known cell type-specific markers, we developed panels of antibodies to characterize and isolate the major airway epithelial subsets (basal, ciliated, and secretory cells) from human bronchial epithelial-cell cultures. We also identified molecularly distinct subpopulations of secretory cells and demonstrated cell subset-specific expression of low-abundance transcripts and microRNAs that are challenging to analyze with current single-cell RNA-sequencing methods. These new tools will be valuable for analyzing and separating airway epithelial subsets and interrogating airway epithelial biology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kyung Duk Koh
- Lung Biology Center
- Cardiovascular Research Institute
| | - Kristina Johansson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Allergy
- Sandler Asthma Basic Research Center
| | | | - Dan Cheng
- Lung Biology Center
- Cardiovascular Research Institute
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Leqian Liu
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences
| | | | | | - Walter L. Eckalbar
- Lung Biology Center
- University of California, San Francisco CoLabs, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California; and
| | | | - David J. Erle
- Lung Biology Center
- Cardiovascular Research Institute
- University of California, San Francisco CoLabs, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California; and
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Kovalchuk NM, Simmons MJ. Surfactant-mediated wetting and spreading: Recent advances and applications. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2020.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Abstract
The community of cells lining our airways plays a collaborative role in the preservation of immune homeostasis in the lung and provides protection from the pathogens and pollutants in the air we breathe. In addition to its structural attributes that provide effective mucociliary clearance of the lower airspace, the airway epithelium is an immunologically active barrier surface that senses changes in the airway environment and interacts with resident and recruited immune cells. Single-cell RNA-sequencing is illuminating the cellular heterogeneity that exists in the airway wall and has identified novel cell populations with unique molecular signatures, trajectories of differentiation and diverse functions in health and disease. In this Review, we discuss how our view of the airway epithelial landscape has evolved with the advent of transcriptomic approaches to cellular phenotyping, with a focus on epithelial interactions with the local neuronal and immune systems.
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