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Fernando DD, Korhonen PK, Gasser RB, Fischer K. An RNA Interference Tool to Silence Genes in Sarcoptes scabiei Eggs. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23020873. [PMID: 35055058 PMCID: PMC8777771 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In a quest for new interventions against scabies-a highly significant skin disease of mammals, caused by a parasitic mite Sarcoptes scabiei-we are focusing on finding new intervention targets. RNA interference (RNAi) could be an efficient functional genomics approach to identify such targets. The RNAi pathway is present in S. scabiei and operational in the female adult mite, but other developmental stages have not been assessed. Identifying potential intervention targets in the egg stage is particularly important because current treatments do not kill this latter stage. Here, we established an RNAi tool to silence single-copy genes in S. scabiei eggs. Using sodium hypochlorite pre-treatment, we succeeded in rendering the eggshell permeable to dsRNA without affecting larval hatching. We optimised the treatment of eggs with gene-specific dsRNAs to three single-copy target genes (designated Ss-Cof, Ss-Ddp, and Ss-Nan) which significantly and repeatedly suppressed transcription by ~66.6%, 74.3%, and 84.1%, respectively. Although no phenotypic alterations were detected in dsRNA-treated eggs for Ss-Cof and Ss-Nan, the silencing of Ss-Ddp resulted in a 38% reduction of larval hatching. This RNAi method is expected to provide a useful tool for larger-scale functional genomic investigations for the identification of essential genes as potential drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepani D. Fernando
- Infectious Diseases Program, Cell and Molecular Biology Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia;
| | - Pasi K. Korhonen
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; (P.K.K.); (R.B.G.)
| | - Robin B. Gasser
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; (P.K.K.); (R.B.G.)
| | - Katja Fischer
- Infectious Diseases Program, Cell and Molecular Biology Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD 4006, Australia;
- Correspondence:
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Fear-of-intimacy-mediated zinc transport controls fat body cell dissociation through modulating Mmp activity in Drosophila. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:874. [PMID: 34564691 PMCID: PMC8464599 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-04147-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (Mmps) are pivotal extracellular proteinases that have been implicated in tumour invasion and metastasis. Drosophila fat body is important for energy storage and utilization, as well as biosynthetic and metabolic activities. The fat body undergoes remodelling during metamorphosis which is characterized by the dissociation of the fat body into individual cells. Mmps play important roles in the regulation of fat body cell dissociation. Here we show that a zinc transporter fear-of-intimacy (foi) is necessary for the cell dissociation of fat body in Drosophila. The progression of fat body cell dissociation was delayed by fat body-specific foi knockdown while it was accelerated by foi overexpression (OE). In essence, these phenotypes are closely associated with intracellular zinc homeostasis, which can be modulated by dietary zinc intervention or genetic modulation of other zinc transporters. Further study indicated that Mmp1 and Mmp2 levels could be transcriptionally regulated by zinc in vivo. Consistently, the retarded fat body cell dissociation caused by Mmp1 or Mmp2 RNAi could be regulated by modulating the expression of foi. Further, by using Drosophila models of malignant tumour RafGOFscrib−/− and RasV12lgl−/−, we showed that the tumour growth, invasion and migration could be markedly inhibited by foi knockdown. These findings demonstrate a close connection between zinc levels and cell dissociation in vivo, and also suggest that manipulation of zinc levels may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for cancer.
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Broquard C, Saowaros SA, Lepoittevin M, Degremont L, Lamy JB, Morga B, Elizur A, Martinez AS. Gonadal transcriptomes associated with sex phenotypes provide potential male and female candidate genes of sex determination or early differentiation in Crassostrea gigas, a sequential hermaphrodite mollusc. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:609. [PMID: 34372770 PMCID: PMC8353863 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-07838-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In the animal kingdom, mollusca is an important phylum of the Lophotrochozoa. However, few studies have investigated the molecular cascade of sex determination/early gonadal differentiation within this phylum. The oyster Crassostrea gigas is a sequential irregular hermaphrodite mollusc of economic, physiological and phylogenetic importance. Although some studies identified genes of its sex-determining/−differentiating pathway, this particular topic remains to be further deepened, in particular with regard to the expression patterns. Indeed, these patterns need to cover the entire period of sex lability and have to be associated to future sex phenotypes, usually impossible to establish in this sequential hermaphrodite. This is why we performed a gonadal RNA-Seq analysis of diploid male and female oysters that have not changed sex for 4 years, sampled during the entire time-window of sex determination/early sex differentiation (stages 0 and 3 of the gametogenetic cycle). This individual long-term monitoring gave us the opportunity to explain the molecular expression patterns in the light of the most statistically likely future sex of each oyster. Results The differential gene expression analysis of gonadal transcriptomes revealed that 9723 genes were differentially expressed between gametogenetic stages, and 141 between sexes (98 and 43 genes highly expressed in females and males, respectively). Eighty-four genes were both stage- and sex-specific, 57 of them being highly expressed at the time of sex determination/early sex differentiation. These 4 novel genes including Trophoblast glycoprotein-like, Protein PML-like, Protein singed-like and PREDICTED: paramyosin, while being supported by RT-qPCR, displayed sexually dimorphic gene expression patterns. Conclusions This gonadal transcriptome analysis, the first one associated with sex phenotypes in C. gigas, revealed 57 genes highly expressed in stage 0 or 3 of gametogenesis and which could be linked to the future sex of the individuals. While further study will be needed to suggest a role for these factors, some could certainly be original potential actors involved in sex determination/early sex differentiation, like paramyosin and could be used to predict the future sex of oysters. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07838-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coralie Broquard
- Normandie University, UNICAEN, CNRS, BOREA, 14000, Caen, France.,Laboratoire de Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques (BOREA), Université de Caen Normandie, MNHN, SU, UA, CNRS, IRD, Esplanade de la Paix, CS 14032, 14032, Cedex 05, Caen, France.,Ifremer, RBE-SG2M-LGPMM, La Tremblade, France
| | - Suwansa-Ard Saowaros
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Genecology Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mélanie Lepoittevin
- Normandie University, UNICAEN, CNRS, BOREA, 14000, Caen, France.,Laboratoire de Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques (BOREA), Université de Caen Normandie, MNHN, SU, UA, CNRS, IRD, Esplanade de la Paix, CS 14032, 14032, Cedex 05, Caen, France
| | | | | | | | - Abigail Elizur
- Genecology Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - Anne-Sophie Martinez
- Normandie University, UNICAEN, CNRS, BOREA, 14000, Caen, France. .,Laboratoire de Biologie des Organismes et Ecosystèmes Aquatiques (BOREA), Université de Caen Normandie, MNHN, SU, UA, CNRS, IRD, Esplanade de la Paix, CS 14032, 14032, Cedex 05, Caen, France.
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Domesticated gag Gene of Drosophila LTR Retrotransposons Is Involved in Response to Oxidative Stress. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11040396. [PMID: 32268600 PMCID: PMC7231272 DOI: 10.3390/genes11040396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster is one of the most extensively used genetic model organisms for studying LTR retrotransposons that are represented by various groups in its genome. However, the phenomenon of molecular domestication of LTR retrotransposons has been insufficiently studied in Drosophila, as well as in other invertebrates. The present work is devoted to studying the role of the domesticated gag gene, Gagr, in the Drosophila genome. The Gagr gene has been shown to be involved in the response to stress caused by exposure to ammonium persulfate, but not in the stress response to oligomycin A, zeomycin, and cadmium chloride. Ammonium persulfate tissue specifically activates the expression of Gagr in the tissues of the carcass, but not in the gut. We found that the Gagr gene promoter contains one binding motif for the transcription factor kayak, a component of the JNK signaling pathway, and two binding motifs for the transcription factor Stat92E, a component of the Jak-STAT signaling pathway. Remarkably, Gagr orthologs contain the second binding motif for Stat92E only in D. melanogaster, D. simulans and D. sechellia, whereas in D. yakuba and D. erecta, Gagr orthologs contain a single motif, and there are no binding sites for Stat92E in the promoters of Gagr orthologs in D. ananassae and in species outside the melanogaster group. The data obtained indicate the formation of the protective function of the Gagr gene during evolution.
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Tower J, Pomatto LCD, Davies KJA. Sex differences in the response to oxidative and proteolytic stress. Redox Biol 2020; 31:101488. [PMID: 32201219 PMCID: PMC7212483 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in diseases involving oxidative and proteolytic stress are common, including greater ischemic heart disease, Parkinson disease and stroke in men, and greater Alzheimer disease in women. Sex differences are also observed in stress response of cells and tissues, where female cells are generally more resistant to heat and oxidative stress-induced cell death. Studies implicate beneficial effects of estrogen, as well as cell-autonomous effects including superior mitochondrial function and increased expression of stress response genes in female cells relative to male cells. The p53 and forkhead box (FOX)-family genes, heat shock proteins (HSPs), and the apoptosis and autophagy pathways appear particularly important in mediating sex differences in stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Tower
- Molecular and Computational Biology Program, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA90089, USA.
| | - Laura C D Pomatto
- National Institute on General Medical Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Kelvin J A Davies
- Molecular and Computational Biology Program, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, Ethel Percy Andrus Gerontology Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA90089, USA; Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Medicine, Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California, USA
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Galenza A, Foley E. Immunometabolism: Insights from the Drosophila model. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 94:22-34. [PMID: 30684503 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Multicellular organisms inhabit an environment that includes a mix of essential nutrients and large numbers of potentially harmful microbes. Germline-encoded receptors scan the environment for microbe associated molecular patterns, and, upon engagement, activate powerful defenses to protect the host from infection. At the same time, digestive enzymes and transporter molecules sieve through ingested material for building blocks and energy sources necessary for survival, growth, and reproduction. We tend to view immune responses as a potent array of destructive forces that overwhelm potentially harmful agents. In contrast, we view metabolic processes as essential, constructive elements in the maintenance and propagation of life. However, there is considerable evidence of functional overlap between the two processes, and disruptions to one frequently modify outputs of the other. Studies of immunometabolism, or interactions between immunity and metabolism, have increased in prominence with the discovery of inflammatory components to metabolic diseases such as type two diabetes. In this review, we will focus on contributions of studies with the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, to our understanding of immunometabolism. Drosophila is widely used to study immune signaling, and to understand the regulation of metabolism in vivo, and this insect has considerable potential as a tool to build our understanding of the molecular and cellular bridges that connect immune and metabolic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Galenza
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2S2, Canada
| | - Edan Foley
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2S2, Canada.
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Odnokoz O, Nakatsuka K, Klichko VI, Nguyen J, Solis LC, Ostling K, Badinloo M, Orr WC, Radyuk SN. Mitochondrial peroxiredoxins are essential in regulating the relationship between Drosophila immunity and aging. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2016; 1863:68-80. [PMID: 27770625 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2016.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2016] [Revised: 09/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we have shown that flies under-expressing the two mitochondrial peroxiredoxins (Prxs), dPrx3 and dPrx5, display increases in tissue-specific apoptosis and dramatically shortened life span, associated with a redox crisis, manifested as changes in GSH:GSSG and accumulation of protein mixed disulfides. To identify specific pathways responsible for the observed biological effects, we performed a transcriptome analysis. Functional clustering revealed a prominent group enriched for immunity-related genes, including a considerable number of NF-kB-dependent antimicrobial peptides (AMP) that are up-regulated in the Prx double mutant. Using qRT-PCR analysis we determined that the age-dependent changes in AMP levels in mutant flies were similar to those observed in controls when scaled to percentage of life span. To further clarify the role of Prx-dependent mitochondrial signaling, we expressed different forms of dPrx5, which unlike the uniquely mitochondrial dPrx3 is found in multiple subcellular compartments, including mitochondrion, nucleus and cytosol. Ectopic expression of dPrx5 in mitochondria but not nucleus or cytosol partially extended longevity under normal or oxidative stress conditions while complete restoration of life span occurred when all three forms of dPrx5 were expressed from the wild type dPrx5 transgene. When dPrx5 was expressed in mitochondria or in all three compartments, it substantially delayed the development of hyperactive immunity while expression of cytosolic or nuclear forms had no effect on the immune phenotype. The data suggest a critical role of mitochondria in development of chronic activation of the immune response triggered by impaired redox control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olena Odnokoz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Kyle Nakatsuka
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Vladimir I Klichko
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Jacqueline Nguyen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Liz Calderon Solis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Kaitlin Ostling
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Marziyeh Badinloo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - William C Orr
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Svetlana N Radyuk
- Department of Biological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA.
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High-Fat Diet Induces Oxidative Stress and MPK2 and HSP83 Gene Expression in Drosophila melanogaster. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2016; 2016:4018157. [PMID: 27579152 PMCID: PMC4992541 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4018157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Revised: 06/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of a high-fat diet (HFD) causes alteration in normal metabolism affecting lifespan of flies; however molecular mechanism associated with this damage in flies is not well known. This study evaluates the effects of ingestion of a diet supplemented with 10% and 20% of coconut oil, which is rich in saturated fatty acids, on oxidative stress and cells stress signaling pathways. After exposure to the diet for seven days, cellular and mitochondrial viability, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT activity, and mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes HSP83 and MPK2 were analyzed. To confirm the damage effect of diet on flies, survival and lifespan were investigated. The results revealed that the HFD augmented the rate of lipid peroxidation and SOD and CAT activity and induced a higher expression of HSP83 and MPK2 mRNA. In parallel, levels of enzymes involved in lipid metabolism (ACSL1 and ACeCS1) were increased. Our data demonstrate that association among metabolic changes, oxidative stress, and protein signalization might be involved in shortening the lifespan of flies fed with a HFD.
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Rovenko BM, Kubrak OI, Gospodaryov DV, Perkhulyn NV, Yurkevych IS, Sanz A, Lushchak OV, Lushchak VI. High sucrose consumption promotes obesity whereas its low consumption induces oxidative stress in Drosophila melanogaster. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 79:42-54. [PMID: 26050918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Revised: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The effects of sucrose in varied concentrations (0.25-20%) with constant amount of yeasts in larval diet on development and metabolic parameters of adult fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster were studied. Larvae consumed more food at low sucrose diet, overeating with yeast. On high sucrose diet, larvae ingested more carbohydrates, despite consuming less food and obtaining less protein derived from yeast. High sucrose diet slowed down pupation and increased pupa mortality, enhanced levels of lipids and glycogen, increased dry body mass, decreased water content, i.e. resulted in obese phenotype. Furthermore, it suppressed reactive oxygen species-induced oxidation of lipids and proteins as well as the activity of superoxide dismutase. The activity of catalase was gender-related. In males, at all sucrose concentrations used catalase activity was higher than at its concentration of 0.25%, whereas in females sucrose concentration virtually did not influence the activity. High sucrose diet increased content of protein thiols and the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. The increase in sucrose concentration also enhanced uric acid level in females, but caused opposite effects in males. Development on high sucrose diets was accompanied by elevated steady-state insulin-like peptide 3 mRNA level. Finally, carbohydrate starvation at yeast overfeeding on low sucrose diets resulted in oxidative stress reflected by higher levels of oxidized lipids and proteins accompanied by increased superoxide dismutase activity. Potential mechanisms involved in regulation of redox processes by carbohydrates are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bohdana M Rovenko
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vassyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine
| | - Olga I Kubrak
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vassyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine
| | - Dmytro V Gospodaryov
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vassyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine
| | - Natalia V Perkhulyn
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vassyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine
| | - Ihor S Yurkevych
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vassyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine
| | - Alberto Sanz
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences and Newcastle Institute for Ageing, Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne NE4 5PL, UK
| | - Oleh V Lushchak
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vassyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine.
| | - Volodymyr I Lushchak
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vassyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine.
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Abstract
All living organisms must maintain equilibrium in response to internal and external challenges within their environment. Changes in neural plasticity (alterations in neuronal populations, dendritic remodeling, and synaptic turnover) are critical components of the homeostatic response to stress, which has been strongly implicated in the onset of affective disorders. However, stress is differentially perceived depending on the type of stress and its context, as well as genetic background, age and sex; therefore, an individual's maintenance of neuronal homeostasis must differ depending upon these variables. We established Drosophila as a model to analyze homeostatic responses to stress. Sexually immature and mature females and males from an isogenic wild-type strain raised under controlled environmental conditions were exposed to four reproducible and high-throughput translatable stressors to facilitate the analysis of a large number of animals for direct comparisons. These animals were assessed in an open-field arena, in a light-dark box, and in a forced swim test, as well as for sensitivity to the sedative effects of ethanol. These studies establish that immature and mature females and males represent behaviorally distinct populations under control conditions as well as after exposure to different stressors. Therefore, the neural substrates mediating the stress response must be differentially expressed depending upon the hormonal status of the brain. In addition, an adaptive response to a given stressor in one paradigm was not predictive for outcomes in other paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendi S. Neckameyer
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Boulevard, Saint Louis MO 63104 USA
| | - Andres Nieto
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, 1402 South Grand Boulevard, Saint Louis MO 63104 USA
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