Contractile properties and myosin expression in rats born and reared in hypergravity

Applying a muscle fatigue model when optimizing load-sharing between muscles for short-duration high-intensity exercise: A preliminary study

Introduction: Multiple different mathematical models have been developed to represent muscle force, to represent multiple muscles in the musculoskeletal system, and to represent muscle fatigue. However, incorporating these different models together to describe the behavior of a high-intensity exercise has not been well described. Methods: In this work, we adapted the three-compartment controller (3CCr) muscle fatigue model to be implemented with an inverse-dynamics based optimization algorithm for the muscle recruitment problem for 7 elbow muscles to model a benchmark case: elbow flexion/extension moments. We highlight the difficulties in achieving an accurate subject-specific approach for this multi-level modeling problem, considering different muscular models, compared with experimental measurements. Both an isometric effort and a dynamic bicep curl were considered, where muscle activity and resting periods were simulated to obtain the fatigue behavior. Muscle parameter correction, scaling and calibration are addressed in this study. Moreover, fiber-type recruitment hierarchy in force generation was added to the optimization problem, thus offering an additional novel muscle modeling criterion. Results: It was observed that: i) the results were most accurate for the static case; ii) insufficient torque was predicted by the model at some time points for the dynamic case, which benefitted from a more precise calibration of muscle parameters; iii) modeling the effects of muscular potentiation may be important; and iv) for this multilevel model approach, the 3CCr model had to be modified to avoid reaching situations of unrealistic constant fatigue in high intensity exercise-resting cycles. Discussion: All the methods yield reasonable estimations, but the complexity of obtaining accurate subject-specific human models is highlighted in this study. The proposed novel muscle modeling and force recruitment criterion, which consider the muscular fiber-type distinction, show interesting preliminary results.

Divergent Anabolic Signalling responses of Murine Soleus and Tibialis Anterior Muscles to Chronic 2G Hypergravity

The purpose of the study was to assess the rate of protein synthesis (PS) and elucidate signalling pathways regulating PS in mouse soleus (Sol) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles following chronic hypergravity (30-day centrifugation at 2G). The content of the key signalling proteins of the various anabolic signalling pathways was determined by Western-blotting. The rate of PS was assessed using in-vivo SUnSET technique. An exposure to 2G centrifugation did not induce any significant changes in the rate of PS as well as phosphorylation status of the key anabolic markers (AKT, p70s6k, 4E-BP1, GSK-3beta, eEF2) in Sol. On the contrary, a significant 55% increase in PS (p < 0.05) was found in TA. The cause of such a rise in PS could be associated with an increase in AKT (+72%, p < 0.05), GSK-3beta (+60%, p < 0.05) and p70s6k (+40%, p < 0.05) phosphorylation, as well as a decrease in eEF2 phosphorylation (−46%, p < 0.05) as compared to control values. Thus, the results of our study indicate that 30-day 2G centrifugation induces a distinct anabolic response in mouse Sol and TA muscles. The activation of the PS rate in TA could be linked to an up-regulation of both mTORC1-dependent and mTORC1-independent signalling pathways.

Hypergravity within a critical period impacts on the maturation of somatosensory cortical maps and their potential for use-dependent plasticity in the adult

We investigated experience-dependent plasticity of somatosensory maps in rat S1 cortex during early development. We analyzed both short- and long-term effects of exposure to 2G hypergravity (HG) during the first 3 postnatal weeks on forepaw representations. We also examined the potential of adult somatosensory maps for experience-dependent plasticity after early HG rearing. At postnatal day 22, HG was found to induce an enlargement of cortical zones driven by nail displacements and a contraction of skin sectors of the forepaw map. In these remaining zones serving the skin, neurons displayed expanded glabrous skin receptive fields (RFs). HG also induced a bias in the directional sensitivity of neuronal responses to nail displacement. HG-induced map changes were still found after 16 wk of housing in normogravity (NG). However, the glabrous skin RFs recorded in HG rats decreased to values similar to that of NG rats, as early as the end of the first week of housing in NG. Moreover, the expansion of the glabrous skin area and decrease in RF size normally induced in adults by an enriched environment (EE) did not occur in the HG rats, even after 16 wk of EE housing in NG. Our findings reveal that early postnatal experience critically and durably shapes S1 forepaw maps and limits their potential to be modified by novel experience in adulthood.

Exposure to hypergravity during specific developmental periods differentially affects metabolism and vestibular reactions in adult C57BL /6j mice

The development of the posturo-motor control of movement is conditioned by Earth's gravity. Missing or altered gravity during the critical periods of development delays development and induces durable changes in the vestibular, cerebellar, or muscular structures, but these are not consistently mirrored at a functional level. The differences in the time schedule of vestibular and motor development could contribute to this inconstancy. To investigate the influence of gravity on the development of vestibular and locomotor functions, we analysed the performance of adult mice subjected to hypergravity during the time covering either the vestibular or locomotor development. The mice were centrifuged at 2 g from embryonic day (E) 0 to postnatal day (P) 10 (PRE), from P10 to P30 (POST), from E0 to P30 (FULL), and from E7 to P21. Their muscular force, anxiety level, vestibular reactions, and aerobic capacity during treadmill training were then evaluated at the age of 2 and 6 months. The performance of young adults varied in relation to the period of exposure to hypergravity. The mice that acquired locomotion in hypergravity (POST and FULL) showed a lower forelimb force and delayed vestibular reactions. The mice centrifuged from conception to P10 (PRE) showed a higher aerobic capacity during treadmill training. The differences in muscular force and vestibular reactions regressed with age, but the metabolic changes persisted. These results confirmed that early exposure to hypergravity induces qualitative changes depending on the period of exposure. They validated, at a functional level, the existence of several critical periods for adaptation to gravity.

Effect of hindlimb suspension on activation and MHC content of triceps brachii and on the representation of forepaw on the sensorimotor cortex

The aims of this work were to analyze the effects of a chronic (14 days) increase in the functional demand imposed on the triceps brachii and to evaluate the changes of the cortical representation of forelimb to this increased activity. The activation of triceps brachii was obtained by the hindlimb unloading (HU) model. Electromyographic activity changed from a phasic to a tonic pattern. Response amplitude increased during the first days of hyperactivity and then stabilized at an intermediate level. A transient decrease (-13% to -36% on day 2) in the mean frequency of motor units was observed. Content in myosin heavy chain of muscle fibers showed a reduction in IIb+IIx fibers in HU rats, whereas IIa+IIx fibers were more numerous. Thus, fibers tend to be more resistant to fatigue. Taken together, these observations reveal a dual plastic process. First, the nervous system reacts immediately to an environmental change, and second it reorganizes its motor command to impose a pattern of activity that is more adapted to a postural function. The extent of the cortical forelimb representation was delimited by oxidase histochemistry. No differences were detectable between control and HU animals for the period corresponding to enlarged receptive fields in the HU condition. Our observation lends support to our hypothesis that activation patterns contribute to the maintenance of neuronal properties in the somatosensory cortex. Moreover, the new tonic pattern resulting from the long contact of the paw with the floor may contribute to the adaptation of the central control of motoneuronal activity.

Denervation produces different single fiber phenotypes in fast- and slow-twitch hindlimb muscles of the rat

Using a single, mechanically skinned fiber approach, we tested the hypothesis that denervation (0 to 50 days) of skeletal muscles that do not overlap in fiber type composition [extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus (SOL) muscles of Long-Evans hooded rats] leads to development of different fiber phenotypes. Denervation (50 day) was accompanied by 1) a marked increase in the proportion of hybrid IIB/D fibers (EDL) and I/IIA fibers (SOL) from 30% to >75% in both muscles, and a corresponding decrease in the proportion of pure fibers expressing only one myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform; 2) complex muscle- and fiber-type specific changes in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-loading level at physiological pCa approximately 7.1, with EDL fibers displaying more consistent changes than SOL fibers; 3) decrease by approximately 50% in specific force of all fiber types; 4) decrease in sensitivity to Ca(2+), particularly for SOL fibers (by approximately 40%); 5) decrease in the maximum steepness of the force-pCa curves, particularly for the hybrid I/IIA SOL fibers (by approximately 35%); and 6) increased occurrence of biphasic behavior with respect to Sr(2+) activation in SOL fibers, indicating the presence of both slow and fast troponin C isoforms. No fiber types common to the two muscles were detected at any time points (day 7, 21, and 50) after denervation. The results provide strong evidence that not only neural factors, but also the intrinsic properties of a muscle fiber, influence the structural and functional properties of a particular muscle cell and explain important functional changes induced by denervation at both whole muscle and single cell levels.

Changes in rat soleus muscle phenotype consecutive to a growth in hypergravity followed by normogravity

It has been demonstrated that a long-term stay in hypergravity (HG: 2G) modified the phenotype and the contractile properties of rat soleus muscle. The ability of this muscle to contract was drastically reduced, which is a sign of anticipated aging. Consequently, our aim was to determine whether rats conceived, born, and reared in hypergravity showed adaptative capacities in normogravity (NG: 1G). This study was performed on rats divided into two series: the first was reared in HG until 100 days and was submitted to normogravity until 115 to 220 postnatal days (HG-NG rats); the second was made up of age paired groups reared in normogravity (NG rats). The contractile, morphological, and phenotypical properties of soleus muscle were studied. Our results showed that the NG rats were characterized by coexpressions of slow and fast myosin, respectively, 76.5 and 23.5% at 115 days. During their postnatal maturation, the fast isoform was gradually replaced by slow myosin. At 220 days, the relative proportions were respectively 91.05% and 8.95%. From 115 to 220 days, the HG-NG rats expressed 100% of slow myosin isoform and they presented a slower contractile behavior compared with their age-matched groups; at 115 days, the whole muscle contraction time was increased by 35%, and by 15%, at 220 days. Our study underlined the importance of gravity in the muscular development and suggested the existence of critical periods in muscle phenotype installation.

Responses across the Gravity Continuum: Hypergravity to Microgravity

In response to hypergravity, it appears that the larger the animal, the greater the response, if present. Therefore, the response of a rat exceeds that of a mouse in the same hypergravity environment. When investigated in the microgravity environment of space flight, this appears to hold true. The lack of definitive data obtained in space for either species makes the extrapolation of the continuum to levels below Earth-gravity problematic. However, in systems where responses are detected for both space flight and acceleration by centrifugation, a gravitational continuum is present supporting the "principle of continuity". For those and similar systems, it appears that the use of hypergravity could be used to predict responses to space flight.

Behavioural consequences of hypergravity in developing rats

Gravity represents a stable reference for the nervous system. When the individual is increasing in size and weight, gravity may influence several aspects of the sensory and motor developments. To clarify this role, we studied age-dependent modifications of several exteroceptive and proprioceptive reflexes in five groups of rats conceived, born and reared in hypergravity (2 g). Rats were transferred to normal gravity (1 g) at P5 (post-natal day 5), P10, P15, P21, and P27. Aspects of neural development and adaptation to 1 g were assessed until P40. Hypergravity induced a delay in growth and a retardation in the development of contact-righting, air-righting, and negative geotaxis. However, we found an advance in eye opening by about 2-3 days in HG-P5 and HG-P10 rats and an increase in grip-time. No differences were found in tail and grasp reflexes. Our results show that hypergravity leads to a retarded development of motor aspects which are mainly dependent upon the vestibular system.

Hypergravity from conception to adult stage: effects on contractile properties and skeletal muscle phenotype

This study examined the effects of an elevation of the gravity factor(hypergravity – 2 g) on the molecular and functional characteristics of rat soleus and plantaris muscles. Long Evans rats were conceived, born and reared (CBR) continuously in hypergravity conditions until the age of 100 days. Whole muscle morphological parameters, Ca2+activation characteristics from single skinned fibers, troponin (Tn) subunit and myosin heavy (MHC) and light (MLC) chains isoform compositions were examined in CBR and control muscles from age-paired terrestrial rats. Decreases in body and muscle mass in soleus and plantaris muscles were observed and associated, in the soleus, with a decrease in fiber diameter. The specific force of CBR soleus fibers was increased, and correlated with the elevation of Ca2+ affinity. This was accompanied by slow-to-slower TnC and TnI isoform transitions and a rearrangement in TnT fast isoform content. The MHC transformations of the soleus after hypergravity were associated with the up (down)-regulation of the MHCI (MHCIIa) mRNA isoforms. The MLC2 phosphorylation state remained unchanged in the soleus muscle. The results suggested that the gravity factor could interact with rat muscle development and that hypergravity experiments could provide good tools for the study of myofibrillar protein plasticity and their associated pathways of regulation.

Kinematics of treadmill locomotion in rats conceived, born, and reared in a hypergravity field (2 g)

The kinematics of treadmill locomotion in rats conceived, born, and raised in a hypergravity environment (HG: 2g) until the age of 3 months was investigated for 5 weeks after their exposition to earth's gravity. The locomotor performance of the HG rats (N=7) was compared to that of age-matched control rats (N=8) housed at 1g for the same period. Kinematic analysis of treadmill locomotion was performed up to 35 days of terrestrial life by an optoelectronic motion analyzer (ELITE system). Results showed that the HG rats exhibited a faster locomotor rhythm (increased number of steps/s), walked closer to the ground, and had a more dorsiflexed foot position. Also, HG rats had shorter steps. The data also highlight a fast adaptation to normal gravity since all the locomotor parameters returned to normal values within 3 weeks. The locomotor modifications may be seen as the persistence of a hypergravity-induced posturo-locomotor adaptation in the centrifuge and/or to more functional changes of sensorimotor systems. Because locomotor performance of HG rats is not severely affected, it is concluded that early development of locomotion processes is highly resistant to gravito-inertial changes.

Effects of unilateral and bilateral labyrinthectomy on rat postural muscle properties: the soleus

The aim of our study was to determine whether the suppression of the vestibular inputs could have effects on the soleus muscle properties similar to the modifications observed after an episode of microgravity. The inner ear lesion was performed by surgical labyrinthectomy. Twenty-nine male Wistar rats were used for this study and were divided into three experimental groups: control (CONT, n=7), unilateral labyrinthectomized (UL, n=14) and bilateral labyrinthectomized (BL, n=8). Mechanical, histochemical and electrophoretic parameters were determined 17 days after the operation. Furthermore, electromyographic (EMG) activity of the soleus muscle was examined at 1 h, 1 day and 17 days. Our results showed that UL and BL groups did not present any sign of muscle atrophy when compared to CONT group. However, the contractile and phenotypical characteristics of UL and BL soleus muscles revealed that the muscle evolved from slow toward a slower type. This transition was correlated with a more tonic EMG activity pattern. To conclude, our data demonstrated that soleus muscle transformations observed after microgravity (muscle atrophy, slow-to-fast transition, phasic EMG activity) were not directly the consequence of a vestibular silence.

Expression of Myosin heavy chain isoforms in rat soleus muscle spindles after 19 days of hypergravity

The aim of this study was to determine whether a period of 19 days in hypergravity was long enough to induce changes in the expression of myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms in the muscle spindles. The soleus muscle of 10 male Wistar rats (control: CONT, n=5; hypergravity: HG, n=5) was frozen, cut into serial sections, and labeled with antibodies against MyHCs: I, IIA, IIA + IIX + IIB, slow-tonic, and alpha-cardiac. Forty CONT and 45 HG spindles were analyzed. The results from HG spindles compared to CONT showed that there was no change in the cross-sectional area of intrafusal fibers. However, along the entire length of B1 fibers, the expression of both MyHC I and alpha-cardiac was increased significantly, whereas the labeling against MyHC IIA and MyHC slow-tonic was decreased. In B2 fibers, the labeling against MyHC IIA (region A), slow-tonic (region A), and fast myosins (regions A-C) was statistically decreased. In chain fibers, the labeling against both MyHC IIA and fast MyHC was reduced significantly. We conclude that hypergravity has a real impact on the MyHC content in the muscle spindles and induces some inverse changes of those observed in hypogravity for MyHCs I, alpha-cardiac, and slow-tonic.

Contractile properties of rat single muscle fibers and myosin and troponin isoform expression after hypergravity

The effects of 19 days of hypergravity (HG) were investigated on the biochemical and physiological properties of the slow soleus muscle and its fast agonist, the plantaris. HG was induced by rotational centrifugation that led to a 2-G gravity level. The HG rats were characterized by a slower body growth than control, whereas the soleus muscle mass was increased by 15%. Using electrophoretic techniques, we showed that the distribution of myosin heavy chain and troponin T isoforms was not modified after HG in both soleus and plantaris. In contrast, the isoform expression pattern of two troponin subunits, troponin I and troponin C, was changed in a slow-to-fast manner only in the soleus. From tension-pCa relationships, changes in Ca(2+) activation threshold by 0.18 pCa unit indicated a decrease in Ca(2+) sensitivity and an increase in the slope of the curve, attesting to a higher cooperativity along the thin filament after HG. Comparison of our HG data with previous results in microgravity conditions indicated that muscle characteristics, except muscle mass, did not evolve linearly from 0 to 2 G.