6-Shogaol protects against ischemic acute kidney injury by modulating NF-κB and heme oxygenase-1 pathways

The "root" causes behind the anti-inflammatory actions of ginger compounds in immune cells

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is one of the most well-known spices and medicinal plants worldwide that has been used since ancient times to treat a plethora of diseases including cold, gastrointestinal complaints, nausea, and migraine. Beyond that, a growing body of literature demonstrates that ginger exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer and neuroprotective actions as well. The beneficial effects of ginger can be attributed to the biologically active compounds of its rhizome such as gingerols, shogaols, zingerone and paradols. Among these compounds, gingerols are the most abundant in fresh roots, and shogaols are the major phenolic compounds of dried ginger. Over the last two decades numerous in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated that the major ginger phenolics are able to influence the function of various immune cells including macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells and T cells. Although the mechanism of action of these compounds is not fully elucidated yet, some studies provide a mechanistic insight into their anti-inflammatory effects by showing that ginger constituents are able to target multiple signaling pathways. In the first part of this review, we summarized the current literature about the immunomodulatory actions of the major ginger compounds, and in the second part, we focused on the possible molecular mechanisms that may underlie their anti-inflammatory effects.

A modified system using macrophage-conditioned medium revealed that the indirect effects of anti-inflammatory food-derived compounds improve inflammation-induced suppression of UCP-1 mRNA expression in 10T1/2 adipocytes

Recently, it has been suggested that brown and beige adipocytes may ameliorate obesity because these adipocytes express uncoupling protein-1 (UCP-1), which generates heat by consuming lipid. However, obesity-induced inflammation suppresses the expression of UCP-1. To improve such conditions, food components with anti-inflammatory properties are attracting attention. In this study, we developed a modified system to evaluate only the indirect effects of anti-inflammatory food-derived compounds by optimizing the conventional experimental system using conditioned medium. We validated this new system using 6-shogaol and 6-gingerol, which have been reported to show the anti-inflammatory effects and to increase the basal expression of UCP-1 mRNA. In addition, we found that the acetone extract of Sarcodon aspratus, an edible mushroom, showed anti-inflammatory effects and rescued the inflammation-induced suppression of UCP-1 mRNA expression. These findings indicate that the system with conditioned medium is valuable for evaluation of food-derived compounds with anti-inflammatory effects on the inflammation-induced thermogenic adipocyte dysfunction.

A literature review of bioactive substances for the treatment of periodontitis: In vitro, in vivo and clinical studies

Periodontitis is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the supporting tissues of the tooth that involves a complex interaction of microorganisms and various cell lines around the infected site. To prevent and treat this disease, several options are available, such as scaling, root planning, antibiotic treatment, and dental surgeries, depending on the stage of the disease. However, these treatments can have various side effects, including additional inflammatory responses, chronic wounds, and the need for secondary surgery. Consequently, numerous studies have focused on developing new therapeutic agents for more effective periodontitis treatment. This review explores the latest trends in bioactive substances with therapeutic effects for periodontitis using various search engines. Therefore, this study aimed to suggest effective directions for therapeutic approaches. Additionally, we provide a summary of the current applications and underlying mechanisms of bioactive substances, which can serve as a reference for the development of periodontitis treatments.

6-Shogaol Ameliorates Liver Inflammation and Fibrosis in Mice on a Methionine- and Choline-Deficient Diet by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress, Cell Death, and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is becoming an increasingly serious global health threat, distinguished by hepatic lipid accumulation, inflammation, and fibrosis. There is a lack of approved pharmaceutical interventions for this disease, highlighting the urgent need for effective treatment. This study explores the hepatoprotective potential of 6-shogaol, a natural compound derived from ginger, in a methionine- and choline-deficient (MCD) dietary mouse model of NASH. Male C57BL/6J mice were subjected to the MCD diet for 4 weeks to induce NASH, with concurrent intraperitoneal administration of 6-shogaol (20 mg/kg) three times a week. While 6-shogaol did not impact body weight, liver weight, or hepatic lipid accumulation, it effectively mitigated liver injury, inflammation, and fibrosis in MCD diet-fed mice. Mechanistically, 6-shogaol inhibited lipid and DNA oxidation, restored hepatic glutathione levels, and regulated the expression of pro-oxidant and antioxidant enzymes. Furthermore, 6-shogaol inhibited apoptosis and necroptosis, as indicated by a decrease in TUNEL-stained cells and downregulation of apoptosis- and necroptosis-associated proteins. Additionally, 6-shogaol alleviated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, as demonstrated by decreased expression of molecules associated with unfolded protein response pathways. These findings underscore the potential of 6-shogaol as a therapeutic intervention for NASH by targeting pathways related to oxidative stress, cell death, and ER stress.

Aurantio-obtusin exerts an anti-inflammatory effect on acute kidney injury by inhibiting NF-κB pathway

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is one of the major complications of sepsis. Aurantio-obtusin (AO) is an anthraquinone compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. This study was developed to concentrate on the role and mechanism of AO in sepsis-induced AKI. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2) and BALB/c mice receiving cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) surgery were used to establish in vitro cell model and in vivo mouse model. HK-2 cell viability was measured using MTT assays. Histological alterations of mouse renal tissues were analyzed via hematoxylin and eosin staining. Renal function of mice was assessed by measuring the levels of serum creatinine (SCr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). The concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines in HK-2 cells and serum samples of mice were detected using corresponding ELISA kits. Protein levels of factors associated with nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway were measured in HK-2 cells and renal tissues by Western blotting. AO exerted no cytotoxic effect on HK-2 cells and AO dose-dependently rescued LPS-induced decrease in HK-2 cell viability. The concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines were increased in response to LPS or CLP treatment, and the alterations were reversed by AO treatment. For in vivo experiments, AO markedly ameliorated renal injury and reduced high levels of SCr and BUN in mice underwent CLP operation. In addition, AO administration inhibited the activation of NF-κB signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, AO alleviates septic AKI by suppressing inflammatory responses through inhibiting the NF-κB pathway.

Anticancer perspective of 6-shogaol: anticancer properties, mechanism of action, synergism and delivery system

Cancer is a malignant disease that has plagued human beings all the time, but the treatment effect of commonly used anticancer drugs in clinical practice is not ideal by reason of their drug tolerance and Strong adverse reactions to patients. Therefore, it is imperative to find effective and low-toxic anticancer drugs. Many research works have shown that natural products in Chinese herbal medicine have great anticancer potential, such as 6-shogaol, a monomer composition obtained from Chinese herbal ginger, which has been confirmed by numerous in vitro or vivo studies to be an excellent anti-cancer active substance. In addition, most notably, 6-shogaol has different selectivity for normal and cancer cells during treatment, which makes it valuable for further research and clinical development. Therefore, this review focus on the anti-cancer attributes, the mechanism and the regulation of related signaling pathways of 6-shogaol. In addition, its synergy with commonly used anticancer drugs, potential drug delivery systems and prospects for future research are discussed. This is the first review to comprehensively summarize the anti-cancer mechanism of 6-shogaol, hoping to provide a theoretical basis and guiding significance for future anti-cancer research and clinical development of 6-shogaol.

6-Shogaol from Dried Ginger Protects against Intestinal Ischemia/Reperfusion by Inhibiting Cell Apoptosis via the BDNF/TrkB/PI3K/AKT Pathway

SCOPE

Intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (II/R) injury is a common pathological process with high morbidity and mortality. Effective prevention and treatment therapies for II/R are clinically necessary. 6-Shogaol (6-SG), the main active ingredient in dried ginger, behaviors multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammation, antioxidation, and anti-apoptosis. This study aims to elucidate the protective effects and mechanism of 6-SG against II/R-induced injury.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Sprague-Dawley rats are pre-treated orally with 6-SG and subjected to II/R injury by clamping superior mesenteric artery for 1 h and reperfusion for 2 h. Caco-2 cells are challenged by hypoxia/reoxygenation to mimic II/R in vitro. 6-SG pre-treatment protects against II/R injury by reducing intestinal morphological damage and intestinal barrier injury via inhibiting cell apoptosis. Network pharmacology and molecular docking analyses reveal that 6-SG has a high affinity with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) formed homodimer or heterodimer with NT4 instead of the monomer, and thus the dimer configuration is stabilized, activating BDNF/TrkB/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and inhibiting II/R-induced cell apoptosis. The outcome is further validated both in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

6-Shogaol protects against II/R injury by inhibiting cell apoptosis through the BDNF/TrkB/PI3K/AKT pathway. This study offers a new understanding of the protection mechanism of 6-SG against II/R-induced injury.

Antioxidant Activity in Extracts from Zingiberaceae Family: Cardamom, Turmeric, and Ginger

An increase in life expectancy leads to a greater impact of chronic non-communicable diseases. This is even more remarkable in elder populations, to whom these become main determinants of health status, affecting mental and physical health, quality of life, and autonomy. Disease appearance is closely related to the levels of cellular oxidation, pointing out the importance of including foods in one's diet that can prevent oxidative stress. Previous studies and clinical data suggest that some plant-based products can slow and reduce the cellular degradation associated with aging and age-related diseases. Many plants from one family present several applications that range from the food to the pharmaceutical industry due to their characteristic flavor and scents. The Zingiberaceae family, which includes cardamom, turmeric, and ginger, has bioactive compounds with antioxidant activities. They also have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antiemetic activities and properties that help prevent cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. These products are abundant sources of chemical substances, such as alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and diarylheptanoids. The main bioactive compounds found in this family (cardamom, turmeric, and ginger) are 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, β-turmerone, and α-zingiberene. The present review gathers evidence surrounding the effects of dietary intake of extracts of the Zingiberaceae family and their underlying mechanisms of action. These extracts could be an adjuvant treatment for oxidative-stress-related pathologies. However, the bioavailability of these compounds needs to be optimized, and further research is needed to determine appropriate concentrations and their antioxidant effects in the body.

The roles of heme oxygenase-1 in renal disease

Heme oxygenase (HO), a heat shock protein containing hemoglobin, is an important enzyme in heme catabolism. It is involved in cell homeostasis and has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptosis, immunomodulation, and other functions. It is expressed at a modest level in most normal tissues. When the body suffers from ischemia hypoxia, injury, toxins, and other nociceptive stimuli, the expression increases, which can transform the oxidative microenvironment into an antioxidant environment to promote tissue recovery from damage. In recent years, research has continued to verify its value in a variety of human bodily systems. It is also regarded as a key target for the treatment of numerous disorders. With the advancement of studies, its significance in renal disease has gained increasing attention. It is thought to have a significant protective function in preventing acute kidney injury and delaying the progression of chronic renal diseases. Its protective mechanisms include anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cell cycle regulation, apoptosis inhibition, hemodynamic regulation, and other aspects, which have been demonstrated in diverse animal models. Furthermore, as a protective factor, its potential therapeutic efficacy in renal disease has recently become a hot area of research. Although a large number of preclinical trials have confirmed its therapeutic potential in reducing kidney injury, due to the problems and side effects of HO-1 induction therapy, its efficacy and safety in clinical application need to be further explored. In this review, we summarize the current state of research on the mechanism, location, and treatment of HO and its relationship with various renal diseases.

Oxypurinol protects renal ischemia/reperfusion injury via heme oxygenase-1 induction

Renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a major cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) by increasing oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and tubular cell death. Oxypurinol, an active metabolite of allopurinol, is a potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent. To investigate the therapeutic potential and underlying mechanism of oxypurinol in ischemic AKI, C57BL/6 male mice were intraperitoneally injected with oxypurinol and subjected to renal I/R or sham surgery. We found that oxypurinol-treated mice had lower plasma creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels and tubular damage (hematoxylin-and-eosin staining) compared to vehicle-treated mice after renal I/R injury. Furthermore, oxypurinol treatment reduced kidney inflammation (i.e., neutrophil infiltration and MIP-2 mRNA induction), oxidative stress (i.e., 4-HNE, heme oxygenase-1 [HO-1], 8-OHdG expression, and Catalase mRNA induction), and apoptosis (i.e., TUNEL or cleaved caspase-3-positive renal tubular cells), compared to vehicle-treated mice. Mechanistically, oxypurinol induced protein expressions of HO-1, which is a critical cytoprotective enzyme during ischemic AKI, and oxypurinol-mediated protection against ischemic AKI was completely eliminated by pretreatment with tin protoporphyrin IX, an HO-1 inhibitor. In conclusion, oxypurinol protects against renal I/R injury by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis via HO-1 induction, suggesting its preventive potential in ischemic AKI.

Nutritional benefits of ginger for patients with non-communicable diseases

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a famous dietary spice rich in bioactive components like gingerols, and it has been used for a long time as food and medicine. Indeed, clinical studies have confirmed the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of ginger. Thus, ginger seems to be an excellent complementary nutritional strategy for non-communicable diseases (NCD) such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease. This narrative review aims to discuss the possible effects of ginger on the mitigation of common complications such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and gut dysbiosis in NCD.

Sevoflurane Dampens Acute Pulmonary Inflammation via the Adenosine Receptor A2B and Heme Oxygenase-1

Acute respiratory distress syndrome is a life-threatening disease associated with high mortality. The adenosine receptor A2B (Adora2b) provides anti-inflammatory effects, which are also associated with the intracellular enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Our study determined the mechanism of sevoflurane’s protective properties and investigated the link between sevoflurane and the impact of a functional Adora2b via HO-1 modulation during lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung injury. We examined the LPS-induced infiltration of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) into the lung tissue and protein extravasation in wild-type and Adora2b−/− animals. We generated chimeric animals, to identify the impact of sevoflurane on Adora2b of hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells. Sevoflurane decreased the LPS-induced PMN-infiltration and diminished the edema formation in wild-type mice. Reduced PMN counts after sevoflurane treatment were detected only in chimeric mice, which expressed Adora2b exclusively on leukocytes. The Adora2b on hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic cells was required to improve the permeability after sevoflurane inhalation. Further, sevoflurane increased the protective effects of HO-1 modulation on PMN migration and microvascular permeability. These protective effects were abrogated by specific HO-1 inhibition. In conclusion, our data revealed new insights into the protective mechanisms of sevoflurane application during acute pulmonary inflammation and the link between sevoflurane and Adora2b, and HO-1 signaling, respectively.

Ginger Constituent 6-Shogaol Inhibits Inflammation- and Angiogenesis-Related Cell Functions in Primary Human Endothelial Cells

Rhizomes from Zingiber officinale Roscoe are traditionally used for the treatment of a plethora of pathophysiological conditions such as diarrhea, nausea, or rheumatoid arthritis. While 6-gingerol is the pungent principle in fresh ginger, in dried rhizomes, 6-gingerol is dehydrated to 6-shogaol. 6-Shogaol has been demonstrated to exhibit anticancer, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory actions more effectively than 6-gingerol due to the presence of an electrophilic Michael acceptor moiety. In vitro, 6-shogaol exhibits anti-inflammatory actions in a variety of cell types, including leukocytes. Our study focused on the effects of 6-shogaol on activated endothelial cells. We found that 6-shogaol significantly reduced the adhesion of leukocytes onto lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), resulting in a significantly reduced transmigration of THP-1 cells through an endothelial cell monolayer. Analyzing the mediators of endothelial cell–leukocyte interactions, we found that 30 µM of 6-shogaol blocked the LPS-triggered mRNA and protein expression of cell adhesion molecules. In concert with this, our study demonstrates that the LPS-induced nuclear factor κB (NFκB) promoter activity was significantly reduced upon treatment with 6-shogaol. Interestingly, the nuclear translocation of p65 was slightly decreased, and protein levels of the LPS receptor Toll-like receptor 4 remained unimpaired. Analyzing the impact of 6-shogaol on angiogenesis-related cell functions in vitro, we found that 6-shogaol attenuated the proliferation as well as the directed and undirected migration of HUVECs. Of note, 6-shogaol also strongly reduced the chemotactic migration of endothelial cells in the direction of a serum gradient. Moreover, 30 µM of 6-shogaol blocked the formation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induced endothelial sprouts from HUVEC spheroids and from murine aortic rings. Importantly, this study shows for the first time that 6-shogaol exhibits a vascular-disruptive impact on angiogenic sprouts from murine aortae. Our study demonstrates that the main bioactive ingredient in dried ginger, 6-shogaol, exhibits beneficial characteristics as an inhibitor of inflammation- and angiogenesis-related processes in vascular endothelial cells.

Ginger and its constituents: Role in treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), with obscure etiology, are rising and are of worldwide concern. Of the various components of IBD pathogenesis and progression, irritation appears to play a major part. Investigations on the molecular and cellular pathways that activate the IBD provide the focus for the development of useful therapies. Ginger (the rhizome of Zingiber officinale) has a broad spectrum of clinical applications due to its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative functions. Inflammation and oxidative stress are the key pathogenic factors in many diseases, including IBD. The most established components of ginger are phenolic compounds called gingerols. A wide range of pharmacological activities of the potential therapeutic benefit of Z. officinale have been detailed. In this regard, the anti-inflammatory activity of ginger has been documented by many researchers. It was shown that ginger is a potent inhibitor of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), signal transducer of activators of transcription (STATs), Nod-like receptor family proteins (NLRPs), toll-like receptors (TLRs), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPKs), and mTOR (mTOR) pathways, as well as inhibiting various pro-inflammatory cytokines. In the present report, the potential application of ginger in the management of IBD is reviewed in detail, with an emphasis on the relevant properties of ginger and its bioactive components. The significance of the functions, side effects, and delivery of ginger to the digestive system for particular application in IBD are also considered.

Ginger: A complementary approach for management of cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Inflammation and oxidative stress play critical roles in progression of various types of CVD. Broad pharmacological properties of ginger (the rhizome of Zingiber officinale) and its bioactive components have been reported, suggesting that they can be a therapeutic choice for clinical use. Consistent with its rich phenolic content, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of ginger have been confirmed in many studies. Ginger modifies many cellular processes and in particular was shown to have potent inhibitory effects against nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB); signal transducer and activator of transcription; NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing proteins; toll-like receptors; mitogen-activated protein kinase; and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathways. Ginger also blocks pro-inflammatory cytokines and the activation of the immune system. Ginger suppresses the activity of oxidative molecules such as reactive oxygen species, inducible nitric oxide synthase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione, heme oxygenase, and GSH-Px. In this report, we summarize the biochemical pathologies underpinning a variety of CVDs and the effects of ginger and its bioactive components, including 6-shogaol, 6-gingerol, and 10-dehydrogingerdione. The properties of ginger and its phenolic components, mechanism of action, biological functions, side effects, and methods for enhanced cell delivery are also discussed. Together with preclinical and clinical studies, the positive biological effects of ginger and its bioactive components in CVD support the undertaking of further in vivo and especially clinical studies.

Protective Effects of 6-Shogaol, an Active Compound of Ginger, in a Murine Model of Cisplatin-Induced Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a dose-limiting side effect of cisplatin therapy in cancer patients. However, effective therapies for cisplatin-induced AKI are not available. Oxidative stress, tubular cell death, and inflammation are known to be the major pathological processes of the disease. 6-Shogaol is a major component of ginger and exhibits anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. Accumulating evidence suggest that 6-shogaol may serve as a potential therapeutic agent for various inflammatory diseases. However, whether 6-shogaol exerts a protective effect on cisplatin-induced renal side effect has not yet been determined. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of 6-shogaol on cisplatin-induced AKI and to investigate its underlying mechanisms. An administration of 6-shogaol after cisplatin treatment ameliorated renal dysfunction and tubular injury, as shown by a reduction in serum levels of creatinine and blood urea nitrogen and an improvement in histological abnormalities. Mechanistically, 6-shogaol attenuated cisplatin-induced oxidative stress and modulated the renal expression of prooxidant and antioxidant enzymes. Apoptosis and necroptosis induced by cisplatin were also suppressed by 6-shogaol. Moreover, 6-shogaol inhibited cisplatin-induced cytokine production and immune cell infiltration. These results suggest that 6-shogaol exhibits therapeutic effects against cisplatin-induced AKI via the suppression of oxidative stress, tubular cell death, and inflammation.

Benefits of Ginger and Its Constituent 6-Shogaol in Inhibiting Inflammatory Processes

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is widely used as medicinal plant. According to the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC), dried powdered ginger rhizome can be applied for the prevention of nausea and vomiting in motion sickness (well-established use). Beyond this, a plethora of pre-clinical studies demonstrated anti-cancer, anti-oxidative, or anti-inflammatory actions. 6-Shogaol is formed from 6-gingerol by dehydration and represents one of the main bioactive principles in dried ginger rhizomes. 6-Shogaol is characterized by a Michael acceptor moiety being reactive with nucleophiles. This review intends to compile important findings on the actions of 6-shogaol as an anti-inflammatory compound: in vivo, 6-shogaol inhibited leukocyte infiltration into inflamed tissue accompanied with reduction of edema swelling. In vitro and in vivo, 6-shogaol reduced inflammatory mediator systems such as COX-2 or iNOS, affected NFκB and MAPK signaling, and increased levels of cytoprotective HO-1. Interestingly, certain in vitro studies provided deeper mechanistic insights demonstrating the involvement of PPAR-γ, JNK/Nrf2, p38/HO-1, and NFκB in the anti-inflammatory actions of the compound. Although these studies provide promising evidence that 6-shogaol can be classified as an anti-inflammatory substance, the exact mechanism of action remains to be elucidated. Moreover, conclusive clinical data for anti-inflammatory actions of 6-shogaol are largely lacking.

Nephroprotective activity of Aframomum melegueta seeds extract against diclofenac-induced acute kidney injury: A mechanistic study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Africa, Aframomum species have been traditionally used to treat illnesses such as inflammation, hypertension, diarrhea, stomachache and fever. Moreover, Aframomum melegueta seed extracts (AMSE) are used in traditional medicine to relieve stomachaches and inflammatory diseases.

AIM

Chronic administration of diclofenac (DIC) has been reported to cause acute kidney injury (AKI), which is a serious health condition. The nephroprotective effect of AMSE is yet to be elucidated. Accordingly, this study aims to investigate the phytoconstituents of standardized AMSE, evaluate its nephroprotective effects against DIC-induced AKI in rats, and elaborate its underlying molecular mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The quantitative estimation of major AMSE constituents and profiling of its secondary metabolites were conducted via RP-HPLC and LC-ESI/Triple TOF/MS, respectively. Next, DIC (50 mg/kg)-induced AKI was achieved in Sprague-Dawley rats and DIC-challenged rats were administered AMSE (100 and 200 mg/kg) orally. All treatments were administered for five consecutive days. Blood samples were collected and the sera were used for estimating creatinine, urea and, kidney injury molecule (KIM)-1 levels. Kidney specimens were histopathologically assessed and immunohistochemically examined for c-Myc expression. A portion of the kidney tissue was homogenized and examined for levels of oxidative stress markers (MDA and GSH). Heme oxygenase (HO)-1, TNF-α, IL-6, Bax, Bcl2 and caspase-3 renal levels were quantified by ELISA. Moreover, the protein expression levels of NF-ҡB p65 was quantified using Western blot analysis, whereas mRNA expression levels of AMPK, SIRT-1, nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor (Nrf2) and STAT3 were detected using qRT-PCR in the remaining kidney tissues.

RESULTS

Standardized AMSE was shown to primarily contain 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol and 6-paradol among the 73 compounds that were detected via LC-ESI/Triple TOF/MS including phenolic acids, hydroxyphenylalkanes, diarylheptanoids and fatty acids. Relative to DIC-intoxicated rats, AMSE modulated serum creatinine, urea, KIM-1, renal MDA, TNF-α, IL-6, Bax, and caspase-3 levels. AMSE has also improved renal tissue architecture, enhanced GSH and HO-1 levels, and upregulated renal Nrf2, AMPK, and SIRT-1 mRNA expression levels. Furthermore, AMSE suppressed NF-ҡB p65 protein and STAT3 mRNA expression, and further reduced c-Myc immunohistochemical expression in renal tissues. Overall, our findings revealed that AMSE counteracted DIC-induced AKI via its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic activities. Moreover, AMSE activated Nrf2/HO1 and AMPK/SIRT1, and inhibited NF-ҡB/STAT3 signaling pathways. Therefore, AMSE is a promising agent for inhibiting DIC-induced nephrotoxicity.

6-Shogaol attenuated ethylene glycol and aluminium chloride induced urolithiasis and renal injuries in rodents

The 6-shogaol, is a flavanone type flavonoid that is abundant in citrus fruit and has a wide range of pharmacological effects. The present study attempted to evaluate the antiurolithic effect of 6-shogaol on ethylene glycol (EG) and ammonium chloride (AC)-induced experimental urolithiasis in rats. The efficacy of 6-shogaol 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg was studied in EG 0.75% (V/V) and AC 1% (W/V) experimentally induced urolithiasis in rats for 21 days. The weight difference, urine volume, the levels of calcium, phosphate, magnesium, oxalate and uric acid in urine was observed. The blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, uric acid in serum and levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) were also measured. Histopathological analyses in kidneys were also performed. The rats weights were higher in the 6-shogaol groups than the urolithiasis group. EG caused a significant increase in serum creatinine (p < 0.05), BUN (P < 0.001), and uric acid (p < 0.01) while treatment with Cystone (750 mg/kg), and 6-shogaol (50 and 100 mg/kg) showed the significant reduction in increased serum levels of creatinine (p < 0.001), uric acid (p < 0.01) and BUN (p < 0.001). Administration of EG and AC showed statistically significant (p < 0.001) elevated levels of MDA and reduction in GSH levels. Treatment of Cystone (750 mg/kg), and 6-shogaol (50 and 100 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.001) reduced MDA levels and an increase GSH levels as compared to EG and AC-treated group. The histological findings further attested antiurolithiatic properties of 6-shogaol. The present study attributed clinical shreds of evidence first time that claiming the significant antiurolithic effect of 6-shogaol and could be a cost-effective candidate for the prevention and treatment of urolithiasis.

TUNEL Assay: A Powerful Tool for Kidney Injury Evaluation

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay is a long-established assay used to detect cell death-associated DNA fragmentation (3'-OH DNA termini) by endonucleases. Because these enzymes are particularly active in the kidney, TUNEL is widely used to identify and quantify DNA fragmentation and cell death in cultured kidney cells and animal and human kidneys resulting from toxic or hypoxic injury. The early characterization of TUNEL as an apoptotic assay has led to numerous misinterpretations of the mechanisms of kidney cell injury. Nevertheless, TUNEL is becoming increasingly popular for kidney injury assessment because it can be used universally in cultured and tissue cells and for all mechanisms of cell death. Furthermore, it is sensitive, accurate, quantitative, easily linked to particular cells or tissue compartments, and can be combined with immunohistochemistry to allow reliable identification of cell types or likely mechanisms of cell death. Traditionally, TUNEL analysis has been limited to the presence or absence of a TUNEL signal. However, additional information on the mechanism of cell death can be obtained from the analysis of TUNEL patterns.

A New Method for Screening Natural Products to Stimulate IFN-γ Production in Jurkat Human T Lymphocytes

Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) is a critical cytokine in the defense against viral and bacterial infection. It is mainly produced by natural killer cells and activated T cells. Given its regulatory role in coordinating cellular and humoral immune responses, IFN-γ is considered to be an effective therapeutic agent in the treatment of viral infection. Here we established a fluorescence-based high-content screening model to find small molecules that can stimulate the production of IFN-γ in human Jurkat cells. After a primary screening of 267 natural products, two hits, Astragalus polyphenols and 6-shogaol, were identified to promote the activity of the IFN-γ promoter and subsequently validated by the flow cytometry assay. Obviously, both Astragalus polyphenols and 6-shogaol exhibited potential to induce the transcription and expression of IFN-γ in a dose-dependent manner. These results indicated that our high-content screening model could be a credible and useful platform to contribute to the discovery of novel molecules to promote the expression of IFN-γ and provide leading compounds for the treatment of viral infectious diseases.