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Allinger J, Bouyeure A, Noulhiane M, Lemaitre F. Monitoring the Breath-Hold Training Load during an Ecological Session: A Pilot Study. Int J Sports Med 2024; 45:837-843. [PMID: 39008986 DOI: 10.1055/a-2323-9675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to create a training load index to measure physiological stress during breath-hold (BH) training and examine its relationship with memory performance. Eighteen well-trained BH divers (Age: 35.8±6.6 years, BH training practice: 5.3±4.5 years) participated in this study. During a standard 1.5-hour BH training in the pool, perceived exertion, heart rate, distance, and duration were measured. The training load index was modelled on the basis of a TRIMP (TRaining IMPulse) with four different equations and was used to measure the stress induced by this BH training. A reference value, based on the ratio between the average heart rate during all BHs and the lowest heart rate during BH training, was used for comparing training load index. Memory assessment was conducted both before and after this training. Of the four equations proposed, equation no. 4, named aTRIMP for "apnoea," showed the strongest correlation with our reference value (r=0.652, p<0.01). No difference was found between any of the memory tests before and after the BH training. The aTRIMP was a new representative index for monitoring habitual training of well-trained BH divers. Furthermore, this training had no negative impact on memory performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérémie Allinger
- CETAPS, Université de Rouen UFR STAPS, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | | | | | - Frederic Lemaitre
- CETAPS, Université de Rouen UFR STAPS, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
- CRIOBE UAR 3278, CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, Mooréa, Polynésie Française
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2
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Sotiridis A, Makris A, Koskolou M, Geladas ND. On the mechanisms of stress-induced human spleen contraction: training for a higher blood oxygen-carrying capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05589-x. [PMID: 39207549 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05589-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Despite its comparatively limited size in humans, spleen has been shown able to expel red-blood cells in the circulation and thus augment blood oxygen-carrying capacity under certain physiologic conditions. In the present state-of-the-art review, the short- and long-term regulation of spleen volume will be discussed. With regards to the physiological mechanism underlying spleen contraction, sympathetic activation stands as the prime contributor to the response. A dose-dependent relationship between specific interventions of apnea, exercise and hypoxia (imposed separately or in combination) and spleen contraction alleges to the trainability of the spleen organ. The trainability of the spleen is further substantiated by virtue of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies reporting robust increases in both organ volume at rest and subsequent spleen contraction. Alternative ways to assess the relationship between hematologic gains and the magnitude of spleen contraction (i.e., the reduction of spleen volume) will be presented herein. In extension of changes in the conventional measures of hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit, assessment of hemoglobin mass and total blood volume using the (safe, low-cost and time-efficient) CO-rebreathing technique could deepen scientific knowledge on the efficiency of human spleen contraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandros Sotiridis
- Section of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
- Department of Automation, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Anastasios Makris
- Section of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Koskolou
- Section of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Nickos D Geladas
- Section of Sports Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Kowalski T, Rebis K, Wilk A, Klusiewicz A, Wiecha S, Paleczny B. Body Oxygen Level Test (BOLT) is not associated with exercise performance in highly-trained individuals. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1430837. [PMID: 39290618 PMCID: PMC11406178 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1430837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The analysis of chemoreflex and baroreflex sensitivity may contribute to optimizing patient care and athletic performance. Breath-holding tests, such as the Body Oxygen Level Test (BOLT), have gained popularity as a feasible way to evaluate the reflex control over the cardiorespiratory system. According to its proponents, the BOLT score reflects the body's sensitivity to carbon dioxide and homeostasis disturbances, providing feedback on exercise tolerance. However, it has not yet been scientifically validated or linked with exercise performance in highly-trained individuals. Therefore, we investigated the association of BOLT scores with the results of standard performance tests in elite athletes. Methods A group of 49 speedskaters performed BOLT, Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT), and cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) on a cycle ergometer. Peak power, total work, and power drop were measured during WAnT. Time to exhaustion and maximum oxygen uptake were measured during CPET. Spearman's rank correlation and multiple linear regression were performed to analyze the association of BOLT scores with parameters obtained during the tests, age, somatic indices, and training experience. Results No significant correlations between BOLT scores and parameters obtained during WAnT and CPET were found, r(47) = -0.172-0.013, p = 0.248-0.984. The parameters obtained during the tests, age, somatic indices, and training experience were not significant in multiple linear regression (p = 0.38-0.85). The preliminary regression model showed an R 2 of 0.08 and RMSE of 9.78 sec. Conclusions Our findings did not demonstrate a significant relationship between BOLT scores and exercise performance. Age, somatic indices, and training experience were not significant in our analysis. It is recommended to interpret BOLT concerning exercise performance in highly-trained populations with a great degree of caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Kowalski
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Sport - National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kinga Rebis
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Sport - National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Adrian Wilk
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Sport - National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Andrzej Klusiewicz
- Department of Physical Education and Health in Biala Podlaska, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Szczepan Wiecha
- Department of Physical Education and Health in Biala Podlaska, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Bartłomiej Paleczny
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Wroclaw Medical University, Wrocław, Poland
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Declercq L, Bouten J, Van Dyck M, Boone J, Derave W, Heyse B, Bourgois JG. A dive into the physiological responses to maximal apneas, O 2 and CO 2 tables in apnea novices. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05563-7. [PMID: 39044031 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05563-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Apnea duration is dependent on three factors: oxygen storage, oxygen consumption, hypoxia and hypercapnia tolerance. While current literature focuses on maximal apneas to improve apnea duration, apnea trained individuals use timed-repeated submaximal apneas, called "O2 and CO2 tables". These tables claim to accommodate the body to cope with hypoxia and hypercapnia, respectively. The aim of this study was twofold. First, to investigate the determinants of maximal apnea duration in apnea novices. Second, to compare physiologic responses to maximal apneas, O2 and CO2 tables. METHODS After medical screening, lung function test and hemoglobin mass measurement, twenty-eight apnea novices performed three apnea protocols in random order: maximal apneas, O2 table and CO2 table. During apnea, peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), heart rate (HR), muscle (mTOI) and cerebral (cTOI) tissue oxygenation index were measured continuously. End-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) was measured before and after apneas. RESULTS Larger lung volumes, higher resting cTOI and lower resting EtCO2 levels correlated with longer apnea durations. Maximal apneas induced greater decreases in SpO2 (- 16%) and cTOI (- 13%) than O2 (- 8%; - 8%) and CO2 tables (- 6%; - 6%), whereas changes in EtCO2, HR and mTOI did not differ between protocols. CONCLUSION These results suggest that, in apnea novices, O2 and CO2 tables did not induce a more profound hypoxia and hypercapnia, but a similar reduction in oxygen consumption than maximal apneas. Therefore, apnea novices should mainly focus on maximal apneas to improve hypoxia and hypercapnia tolerance. The use of specific lung training protocols can help to increase oxygen storage capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Declercq
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Janne Bouten
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- Laboratory of Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Matthew Van Dyck
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jan Boone
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wim Derave
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bjorn Heyse
- Department of Anesthesiology, Ghent University Hospital, Corneel Heymanslaan 10, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jan G Bourgois
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Watersportlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
- Centre of Sports Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, Corneel Heymanslaan 10, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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Bouten J, Declercq L, Boone J, Brocherie F, Bourgois JG. Apnoea as a novel method to improve exercise performance: A current state of the literature. Exp Physiol 2024. [PMID: 39031986 DOI: 10.1113/ep091905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/22/2024]
Abstract
Acute breath-holding (apnoea) induces a spleen contraction leading to a transient increase in haemoglobin concentration. Additionally, the apnoea-induced hypoxia has been shown to lead to an increase in erythropoietin concentration up to 5 h after acute breath-holding, suggesting long-term haemoglobin enhancement. Given its potential to improve haemoglobin content, an important determinant for oxygen transport, apnoea has been suggested as a novel training method to improve aerobic performance. This review aims to provide an update on the current state of the literature on this topic. Although the apnoea-induced spleen contraction appears to be effective in improving oxygen uptake kinetics, this does not seem to transfer into immediately improved aerobic performance when apnoea is integrated into a warm-up. Furthermore, only long and intense apnoea protocols in individuals who are experienced in breath-holding show increased erythropoietin and reticulocytes. So far, studies on inexperienced individuals have failed to induce acute changes in erythropoietin concentration following apnoea. As such, apnoea training protocols fail to demonstrate longitudinal changes in haemoglobin mass and aerobic performance. The low hypoxic dose, as evidenced by minor oxygen desaturation, is likely insufficient to elicit a strong erythropoietic response. Apnoea therefore does not seem to be useful for improving aerobic performance. However, variations in apnoea, such as hypoventilation training at low lung volume and repeated-sprint training in hypoxia through short end-expiratory breath-holds, have been shown to induce metabolic adaptations and improve several physical qualities. This shows promise for application of dynamic apnoea in order to improve exercise performance. HIGHLIGHTS: What is the topic of this review? Apnoea is considered as an innovative method to improve performance. This review discusses the effectiveness of apnoea (training) on performance. What advances does it highlight? Although the apnoea-induced spleen contraction and the increase in EPO observed in freedivers seem promising to improve haematological variables both acutely and on the long term, they do not improve exercise performance in an athletic population. However, performing repeated sprints on end-expiratory breath-holds seems promising to improve repeated-sprint capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janne Bouten
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Laboratory of Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Louise Declercq
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jan Boone
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Franck Brocherie
- Laboratory of Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Jan G Bourgois
- Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Centre of Sports Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
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6
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Wendi W, Dongzhe W, Hao W, Yongjin S, Xiaolin G. Effect of dry dynamic apnea on aerobic power in elite rugby athletes: a warm-up method. Front Physiol 2024; 14:1269656. [PMID: 38292448 PMCID: PMC10824898 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1269656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective: While long-term dynamic breath-holding training has been extensively studied to enhance cardiopulmonary function in athletes, limited research has explored the impact of a single breath-holding session on subsequent athletic capacity. In addition, Dry Dynamic Apnea (DA) has a more immediate physiological response than wet and static breath-holding. This study aims to assess the immediate effects of a single session of DA on the aerobic power and hematological parameters of elite athletes. Methods: Seventeen elite male rugby athletes (average age 23.5 ± 1.8) participated in this study. Two warm-up protocols were employed prior to incremental exercise: a standard warm-up (10 min of no-load pedaling) and a DA warm-up (10 min of no-load pedaling accompanied by six maximum capacity breath holds, with 30 s between each breath hold). Fingertip blood indicators were measured before and after warm-up. The incremental exercise test assessed aerobic parameters with self-regulation applied throughout the study. Results: Compared to the baseline warm-up, the DA warm-up resulted in a significant increase in VO2peak from 3.14 to 3.38 L/min (7.64% change, p < 0.05). HRmax increased from 170 to 183 bpm (7.34% change, p < 0.05), and HRpeak increased from 169 to 182 bpm (7.52% change, p < 0.05). Hematocrit and hemoglobin showed differential changes between the two warm-up methods (PHematocrit = 0.674; Phemoglobin = 0.707). Conclusion: This study investigates how DA influences physiological factors such as spleen contraction, oxygen uptake, and sympathetic nerve activation compared to traditional warm-up methods. Immediate improvements in aerobic power suggest reduced vagus nerve stimulation, heightened sympathetic activity, and alterations in respiratory metabolism induced by the voluntarily hypoxia-triggered warm-up. Further research is warranted to comprehensively understand these physiological responses and optimize warm-up strategies for elite athletic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Wendi
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing, China
| | - Wu Dongzhe
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing, China
| | - Wang Hao
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing, China
| | - Shi Yongjin
- Department of Sports and Arts, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Gao Xiaolin
- Sports Rehabilitation Research Center, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing, China
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Bourdas DI, Geladas ND. Physiological responses during static apnoea efforts in elite and novice breath-hold divers before and after two weeks of dry apnoea training. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2024; 319:104168. [PMID: 37797907 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2023.104168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the effect of breath-hold (BH) training on apnoeic performance in novice BH divers (NBH:n = 10) and compared them with data from elite BH divers (EBH:n = 11). Both groups performed 5-maximal BHs (PRE). The NBH group repeated this protocol after two weeks of BH training (POST). The NBH group during BH efforts significantly increased red blood cell concentration (4.56 ± 0.16Mio/μl) by 5.06%, hemoglobin oxygen saturation steady state duration (110.32 ± 29.84 s) by 15.48%, and breath-hold time (BHT:144.19 ± 47.35 s) by 33.77%, primarily due to a 59.70% increase in struggle phase (71.85 ± 30.89 s), in POST. EBH group exhibited longer BHT (283.95 ± 36.93 s) and struggle-phase (150.10 ± 34.69 s) than NBH (POST). Elite divers recorded a higher peak MAP (153.18 ± 12.28 mmHg) compared to novices (PRE:123.70 ± 15.65 mmHg, POST:128.30 ± 19.16 mmHg), suggesting that a higher peak MAP is associated with a better BHT. The concurrent abrupt increase of diaphragmatic activity and MAP, seen only in the EBH group, suggests a potential interaction. Additionally, apnoea training increases red blood cells concentration in repeated apnoea efforts and increases BH stamina.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios I Bourdas
- Section of Sport Medicine & Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Ethnikis Antistasis 41, 17237 Daphni, Greece.
| | - Nickos D Geladas
- Section of Sport Medicine & Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Ethnikis Antistasis 41, 17237 Daphni, Greece
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Massini DA, Scaggion D, DE Oliveira TP, Macedo AG, Almeida TF, Pessôa Filho DM. Training methods for maximal static apnea performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2023; 63:77-85. [PMID: 35437303 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.22.13621-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Currently, there is an increase in people practicing freediving (FD) both in competition and leisure. As a sports practice, its modalities are grouped into static, dynamic, and constant weight apnea. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis (PROSPERO-CRD42021230322) was to identify the training methods used to improve the static apnea time (AT) performance. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION Ten training protocols were analyzed from eight studies published until March 09, 2022. The effect size (Hedge's g) and its confidence interval (CI<inf>95%</inf>) were calculated from the AT measured pre- and post-training. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Three different apnea training methods were verified, the breath-hold (BH) that uses BH exercises, physical training with strength and cardiorespiratory exercises, and cross training that combines BH exercises with physical training. These training methods were applied to 138 participants of both sexes with or without experience in apnea episode or diving practice. In general, the AT improvement showed a large effect after the interventions (g=1.30, CI<inf>95%</inf>=0.85-1.76, P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS All three methods were effective in improving static AT, however from the existing protocols is not possible to recommend an ideal to improve AT and therefore FD performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo A Massini
- Post-Graduate Program in Human Development and Technology from São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro, Brazil.,University Center of São Paulo State (UNICEP), Rio Claro, Brazil.,São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil
| | - Danilo Scaggion
- University Center of São Paulo State (UNICEP), Rio Claro, Brazil
| | - Thiago P DE Oliveira
- Post-Graduate Program in Human Development and Technology from São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro, Brazil
| | - Anderson G Macedo
- Post-Graduate Program in Human Development and Technology from São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro, Brazil.,São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil
| | - Tiago F Almeida
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil - .,CIPER, Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Dalton M Pessôa Filho
- Post-Graduate Program in Human Development and Technology from São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro, Brazil.,São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, Brazil
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Thevis M, Kuuranne T, Geyer H. Annual banned-substance review-Analytical approaches in human sports drug testing 2021/2022. Drug Test Anal 2023; 15:5-26. [PMID: 36369629 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Also in 2021/2022, considerable efforts were invested into advancing human sports drug testing programs, recognizing and taking into account existing as well as emerging challenges in anti-doping, especially with regard to substances and methods of doping specified in the World Anti-Doping Agency's 2022 Prohibited List. In this edition of the annual banned-substance review, literature on recent developments published between October 2021 and September 2022 is summarized and discussed. Focus is put particularly on enhanced analytical approaches and complementary testing options in human doping controls, appreciating the exigence and mission in anti-doping and, equally, the contemporary "new normal" considering, for example, the athlete's exposome versus analytical sensitivity and applicable anti-doping regulations for result interpretation and management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Thevis
- Center for Preventive Doping Research-Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Genève and Lausanne, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Hans Geyer
- Center for Preventive Doping Research-Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, Cologne, Germany
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de Asís-Fernández F, Sereno D, Turner AP, González-Mohíno F, González-Ravé JM. Effects of apnoea training on aerobic and anaerobic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Physiol 2022; 13:964144. [PMID: 36237527 PMCID: PMC9551563 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.964144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trained breath-hold divers have shown physiological adaptations that might improve athletes’ aerobic and anaerobic performance.Objective This study aimed to systematically review the scientific literature and perform a meta-analysis to assess the effects of voluntary apnoea training on markers of anaerobic and aerobic performance, such as blood lactate and VO2max.Methods A literature search on three databases (Web of Science, PubMed and SCOPUS) was conducted in March 2022. The inclusion criteria were 1) peer-reviewed journal publication; 2) clinical trials; 3) healthy humans; 4) effects of apnoea training; 5) variables included markers of aerobic or anaerobic performance, such as lactate and VO2max.Results 545 manuscripts were identified following database examination. Only seven studies met the inclusion criteria and were, therefore, included in the meta-analysis. 126 participants were allocated to either voluntary apnoea training (ApT; n = 64) or normal breathing (NB; n = 63). Meta-analysis on the included studies demonstrated that ApT increased the peak blood lactate concentration more than NB (MD = 1.89 mmol*L−1 [95% CI 1.05, 2.73], z = 4.40, p < 0.0001). In contrast, there were no statistically significant effects of ApT on VO2max (MD = 0.89 ml*kg−1*min−1 [95% CI −1.23, 3.01], z = 0.82, p = 0.41).Conclusion ApT might be an alternative strategy to enhace anaerobic performance associated with increased maximum blood lactate; however, we did not find evidence of ApT effects on physiological aerobic markers, such as VO2max.Systematic Review Registration: [PRISMA], identifier [registration number].
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco de Asís-Fernández
- Departamento de Fisioterapia, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Breatherapy Research Group, Instituto de Neurociencias y Ciencias del Movimiento (INCIMOV), Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Sereno
- Breatherapy Research Group, Instituto de Neurociencias y Ciencias del Movimiento (INCIMOV), Centro Superior de Estudios Universitarios La Salle, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Anthony P. Turner
- Sport, Physical Education and Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
- *Correspondence: Fernando González-Mohíno,
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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