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Manferdelli G, Narang BJ, Bourdillon N, Giardini G, Debevec T, Millet GP. Impaired cerebrovascular CO 2 reactivity at high altitude in prematurely born adults. J Physiol 2023. [PMID: 38116893 DOI: 10.1113/jp285048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Premature birth impairs cardiac and ventilatory responses to both hypoxia and hypercapnia, but little is known about cerebrovascular responses. Both at sea level and after 2 days at high altitude (3375 m), 16 young preterm-born (gestational age, 29 ± 1 weeks) and 15 age-matched term-born (40 ± 0 weeks) adults were exposed to two consecutive 4 min bouts of hyperoxic hypercapnic conditions (3% CO2 -97% O2 ; 6% CO2 -94% O2 ), followed by two periods of voluntary hyperventilation-induced hypocapnia. We measured middle cerebral artery blood velocity, end-tidal CO2 , pulmonary ventilation, beat-by-beat mean arterial pressure and arterialized capillary blood gases. Baseline middle cerebral artery blood velocity increased at high altitude compared with sea level in term-born (+24 ± 39%, P = 0.036), but not in preterm-born (-4 ± 27%, P = 0.278) adults. The end-tidal CO2 , pulmonary ventilation and mean arterial pressure were similar between groups at sea level and high altitude. Hypocapnic cerebrovascular reactivity was higher at high altitude compared with sea level in term-born adults (+173 ± 326%, P = 0.026) but not in preterm-born adults (-21 ± 107%, P = 0.572). Hypercapnic reactivity was altered at altitude only in preterm-born adults (+125 ± 144%, P < 0.001). Collectively, at high altitude, term-born participants showed higher hypocapnic (P = 0.012) and lower hypercapnic (P = 0.020) CO2 reactivity compared with their preterm-born peers. In conclusion, exposure to high altitude revealed different cerebrovascular responses in preterm- compared with term-born adults, despite similar ventilatory responses. These findings suggest a blunted cerebrovascular response at high altitude in preterm-born adults, which might predispose these individuals to an increased risk of high-altitude illnesses. KEY POINTS: Cerebral haemodynamics and cerebrovascular reactivity in normoxia are known to be similar between term-born and prematurely born adults. In contrast, acute exposure to high altitude unveiled different cerebrovascular responses to hypoxia, hypercapnia and hypocapnia. In particular, cerebral vasodilatation was impaired in prematurely born adults, leading to an exaggerated cerebral vasoconstriction. Cardiovascular and ventilatory responses to both hypo- and hypercapnia at sea level and at high altitude were similar between control subjects and prematurely born adults. Other mechanisms might therefore underlie the observed blunted cerebral vasodilatory responses in preterm-born adults at high altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin J Narang
- Department of Automatics, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nicolas Bourdillon
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Guido Giardini
- Mountain Medicine and Neurology Centre, Valle D'Aosta Regional Hospital, Aosta, Italy
| | - Tadej Debevec
- Department of Automatics, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Grégoire P Millet
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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2
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Forrer A, Gaisl T, Sevik A, Meyer M, Senteler L, Lichtblau M, Bloch KE, Ulrich S, Furian M. Partial Pressure of Arterial Oxygen in Healthy Adults at High Altitudes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA Netw Open 2023; 6:e2318036. [PMID: 37326993 PMCID: PMC10276310 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.18036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Importance With increasing altitude, the partial pressure of inspired oxygen decreases and, consequently, the Pao2 decreases. Even though this phenomenon is well known, the extent of the reduction as a function of altitude remains unknown. Objective To calculate an effect size estimate for the decrease in Pao2 with each kilometer of vertical gain among healthy unacclimatized adults and to identify factors associated with Pao2 at high altitude (HA). Data Sources A systematic search of PubMed and Embase was performed from database inception to April 11, 2023. Search terms included arterial blood gases and altitude. Study Selection A total of 53 peer-reviewed prospective studies in healthy adults providing results of arterial blood gas analysis at low altitude (<1500 m) and within the first 3 days at the target altitude (≥1500 m) were analyzed. Data Extraction and Synthesis Primary and secondary outcomes as well as study characteristics were extracted from the included studies, and individual participant data (IPD) were requested. Estimates were pooled using a random-effects DerSimonian-Laird model for the meta-analysis. Main Outcomes and Measures Mean effect size estimates and 95% CIs for reduction in Pao2 at HA and factors associated with Pao2 at HA in healthy adults. Results All of the 53 studies involving 777 adults (mean [SD] age, 36.2 [10.5] years; 510 men [65.6%]) reporting 115 group ascents to altitudes between 1524 m and 8730 m were included in the aggregated data analysis; 13 of those studies involving 305 individuals (mean [SD] age, 39.8 [13.6] years; 185 men [60.7%]) reporting 29 ascents were included in the IPD analysis. The estimated effect size of Pao2 was -1.60 kPa (95% CI, -1.73 to -1.47 kPa) for each 1000 m of altitude gain (τ2 = 0.14; I2 = 86%). The Pao2 estimation model based on IPD data revealed that target altitude (-1.53 kPa per 1000 m; 95% CI, -1.63 to -1.42 kPa per 1000 m), age (-0.01 kPa per year; 95% CI, -0.02 to -0.003 kPa per year), and time spent at an altitude of 1500 m or higher (0.16 kPa per day; 95% CI, 0.11-0.21 kPa per day) were significantly associated with Pao2. Conclusions and Relevance In this systematic review and meta-analysis, the mean decrease in Pao2 was 1.60 kPa per 1000 m of vertical ascent. This effect size estimate may improve the understanding of physiological mechanisms, assist in the clinical interpretation of acute altitude illness in healthy individuals, and serve as a reference for physicians counseling patients with cardiorespiratory disease who are traveling to HA regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aglaia Forrer
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Gaisl
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ahmet Sevik
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michelle Meyer
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luzi Senteler
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mona Lichtblau
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Konrad Ernst Bloch
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Swiss-Kyrgyz High-Altitude Medicine and Research Initiative, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Ulrich
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Swiss-Kyrgyz High-Altitude Medicine and Research Initiative, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Furian
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Swiss-Kyrgyz High-Altitude Medicine and Research Initiative, Zurich, Switzerland
- Research Department, Swiss University for Traditional Chinese Medicine, Bad Zurzach, Switzerland
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3
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Baker J, Safarzadeh MA, Incognito AV, Jendzjowsky NG, Foster GE, Bird JD, Raj SR, Day TA, Rickards CA, Zubieta-DeUrioste N, Alim U, Wilson RJA. Functional optical coherence tomography at altitude: retinal microvascular perfusion and retinal thickness at 3,800 meters. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2022; 133:534-545. [PMID: 35771223 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00132.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral hypoxia is a serious consequence of several cardiorespiratory illnesses. Measuring the retinal microvasculature at high altitude provides a surrogate for cerebral microvasculature, offering potential insight into cerebral hypoxia in critical illness. Additionally, while sex-specific differences in cardiovascular diseases are strongly supported, few have focused on differences in ocular blood flow. We evaluated the retinal microvasculature in males (n=11) and females (n=7) using functional optical coherence tomography at baseline (1,130m) (Day 0), following rapid ascent (Day 2) and prolonged exposure (Day 9) to high altitude (3,800m). Retinal vascular perfusion density (rVPD; an index of total blood supply), retinal thickness (RT; reflecting vascular and neural tissue volume) and arterial blood were acquired. As a group, rVPD increased on Day 2 vs. Day 0 (p<0.001) and was inversely related to PaO2 (R2=0.45; p=0.006). By Day 9, rVPD recovered to baseline, but was significantly lower in males vs. females (p=0.007). RT was not different on Day 2 vs. Day 0 (p>0.99) but was reduced by Day 9 relative to Day 0 and Day 2 (p<0.001). RT changes relative to Day 0 were inversely related to changes in PaO2 on Day 2 (R2=0.6; p=0.001) and Day 9 (R2=0.4; p=0.02). RT did not differ between sexes. These data suggest differential time course and regulation of the retina during rapid ascent and prolonged exposure to high altitude and are the first to demonstrate sex-specific differences in rVPD at high altitude. The ability to assess intact microvasculature contiguous with the brain has widespread research and clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacquie Baker
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Cardiac Sciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Mohammad Amin Safarzadeh
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Anthony V Incognito
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Nicholas G Jendzjowsky
- Division of Respiratory and Critical Care Physiology and Medicine, The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, California, United States
| | - Glen Edward Foster
- Centre for Heart, Lung, and Vascular Health, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Jordan D Bird
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Mount Royal University, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Satish R Raj
- Libin Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Cardiac Sciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Trevor A Day
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Mount Royal University, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Caroline A Rickards
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, United States
| | - Natalia Zubieta-DeUrioste
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,High Altitude Pulmonary and Pathology Institute (HAPPI - IPPA), La Paz, Bolivia
| | - Usman Alim
- Department of Computer Science, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard J A Wilson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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4
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Staab JE, Muza SR, Fulco CS, Andrew SP, Beidleman BA. Impact of 2 days of staging at 2500-4300 m on sleep quality and quantity following subsequent exposure to 4300 m. Physiol Rep 2021; 9:e15063. [PMID: 34713967 PMCID: PMC8554773 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of 2 days of staging at 2500-4300 m on sleep quality and quantity following subsequent exposure to 4300 m was determined. Forty-eight unacclimatized men and women were randomly assigned to stage for 2 days at one of four altitudes (2500, 3000, 3500, or 4300 m) prior to assessment on the summit of Pikes Peak (4300 m) for 2 days. Volunteers slept for one night at sea level (SL), two nights at respective staging altitudes, and two nights at Pikes Peak. Each wore a pulse oximeter to measure sleep arterial oxygen saturation (sSpO2 , %) and number of desaturations (DeSHr, events/hr) and a wrist motion detector to estimate sleep awakenings (Awak, awakes/hr) and sleep efficiency (Eff, %). Acute mountain sickness (AMS) was assessed using the Environmental Symptoms Questionnaire and daytime SpO2 was assessed after AMS measurements. The mean of all variables for both staging days (STG) and Pikes Peak days (PP) was calculated. The sSpO2 and daytime SpO2 decreased (p < 0.05) from SL during STG in all groups in a dose-dependent manner. During STG, DeSHr were higher (p < 0.05), Eff was lower (p < 0.05), and AMS symptoms were higher (p < 0.05) in the 3500 and 4300 m groups compared to the 2500 and 3000 m groups while Awak did not differ (p > 0.05) between groups. At PP, the sSpO2 , DeSHr, Awak, and Eff were similar among all groups but the 2500 m group had greater AMS symptoms (p < 0.05) than the other groups. Two days of staging at 2500-4300 m induced a similar degree of sleep acclimatization during subsequent ascent to 4300 m but the 2500 m group was not protected against AMS at 4300 m.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet E. Staab
- Military Performance DivisionU.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental MedicineNatickMassachusettsUSA
| | - Stephen R. Muza
- Strategic Scientific Management OfficeU.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental MedicineNatickMassachusettsUSA
| | - Charles S. Fulco
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine DivisionU.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental MedicineNatickMassachusettsUSA
| | - Sean P. Andrew
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine DivisionU.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental MedicineNatickMassachusettsUSA
| | - Beth A. Beidleman
- Biophysics and Biomedical Modeling DivisionU.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental MedicineNatickMassachusettsUSA
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5
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Carr JMJR, Caldwell HG, Ainslie PN. Cerebral blood flow, cerebrovascular reactivity and their influence on ventilatory sensitivity. Exp Physiol 2021; 106:1425-1448. [PMID: 33932955 DOI: 10.1113/ep089446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
NEW FINDINGS What is the topic of this review? Cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 , which is a principal factor in determining ventilatory responses to CO2 through the role reactivity plays in determining cerebral extra- and intracellular pH. What advances does it highlight? Recent animal evidence suggests central chemoreceptor vasculature may demonstrate regionally heterogeneous cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 , potentially as a protective mechanism against excessive CO2 washout from the central chemoreceptors, thereby allowing ventilation to reflect the systemic acid-base balance needs (respiratory changes in P aC O 2 ) rather than solely the cerebral needs. Ventilation per se does not influence cerebrovascular reactivity independent of changes in P aC O 2 . ABSTRACT Alveolar ventilation and cerebral blood flow are both predominantly regulated by arterial blood gases, especially arterial P C O 2 , and so are intricately entwined. In this review, the fundamental mechanisms underlying cerebrovascular reactivity and central chemoreceptor control of breathing are covered. We discuss the interaction of cerebral blood flow and its reactivity with the control of ventilation and ventilatory responsiveness to changes in P C O 2 , as well as the lack of influence of ventilation itself on cerebrovascular reactivity. We briefly summarize the effects of arterial hypoxaemia on the relationship between ventilatory and cerebrovascular response to both P C O 2 and P O 2 . We then highlight key methodological considerations regarding the interaction of reactivity and ventilatory sensitivity, including the following: regional heterogeneity of cerebrovascular reactivity; a pharmacological approach for the reduction of cerebral blood flow; reactivity assessment techniques; the influence of mean arterial blood pressure; and sex-related differences. Finally, we discuss ventilatory and cerebrovascular control in the context of high altitude and congestive heart failure. Future research directions and pertinent questions of interest are highlighted throughout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay M J R Carr
- Centre for Heart, Lung and Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan Campus, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hannah G Caldwell
- Centre for Heart, Lung and Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan Campus, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Philip N Ainslie
- Centre for Heart, Lung and Vascular Health, University of British Columbia - Okanagan Campus, British Columbia, Canada
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6
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Furian M, Flueck D, Scheiwiller PM, Mueller-Mottet S, Urner LM, Latshang TD, Ulrich S, Bloch KE. Nocturnal cerebral tissue oxygenation in lowlanders with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease travelling to an altitude of 2,590 m: Data from a randomised trial. J Sleep Res 2021; 30:e13365. [PMID: 33902162 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.13365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Altitude exposure induces hypoxaemia in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), particularly during sleep. The present study tested the hypothesis in patients with COPD staying overnight at high altitude that nocturnal arterial hypoxaemia is associated with impaired cerebral tissue oxygenation (CTO). A total of 35 patients with moderate-to-severe COPD, living at <800 m (mean [SD] age 62.4 [12.3] years, forced expiratory volume in 1 s [FEV1 ] 61 [16]% predicted, awake pulse oximetry ≥92%) underwent continuous overnight monitoring of pulse oximetry (oxygen saturation [SpO2 ]) and near-infrared spectroscopy of prefrontal CTO, respectively, at 490 m and 2,590 m. Regression analysis was used to evaluate whether nocturnal arterial desaturation (COPDDesat , SpO2 <90% for >30% of night-time) at 490 m predicted CTO at 2,590 m when controlling for baseline variables. At 2,590 m, mean nocturnal SpO2 and CTO were decreased versus 490 m, mean change -8.8% (95% confidence interval [CI] -10.0 to -7.6) and -3.6% (95% CI -5.7 to -1.6), difference in change ΔCTO-ΔSpO2 5.2% (95% CI 3.0 to 7.3; p < .001). Moreover, frequent cyclic desaturations (≥4% dips/hr) occurred in SpO2 and CTO, mean change from 490 m 35.3/hr (95% CI 24.9 to 45.7) and 3.4/hr (95% CI 1.4 to 5.3), difference in change ΔCTO-ΔSpO2 -32.8/hr (95% CI -43.8 to -21.8; p < .001). Regression analysis confirmed an association of COPDDesat with lower CTO at 2,590 m (coefficient -7.6%, 95% CI -13.2 to -2.0; p = .007) when controlling for several confounders. We conclude that lowlanders with COPD staying overnight at 2,590 m experience altitude-induced hypoxaemia and periodic breathing in association with sustained and intermittent cerebral deoxygenation. Although less pronounced than the arterial deoxygenation, the altitude-induced cerebral tissue deoxygenation may represent a risk of brain dysfunction, especially in patients with COPD with nocturnal hypoxaemia at low altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Furian
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Flueck
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philipp M Scheiwiller
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Séverine Mueller-Mottet
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lorenz M Urner
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tsogyal D Latshang
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Ulrich
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Konrad E Bloch
- Pulmonary Division and Sleep Disorders Center, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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7
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Comparisons of the Nonlinear Relationship of Cerebral Blood Flow Response and Cerebral Vasomotor Reactivity to Carbon Dioxide under Hyperventilation between Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Patients and Healthy Subjects. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9124088. [PMID: 33352894 PMCID: PMC7767239 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9124088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) typically occurs in youths, and early accurate POTS diagnosis is challenging. A recent hypothesis suggests that upright cognitive impairment in POTS occurs because reduced cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) and cerebrovascular response to carbon dioxide (CO2) are nonlinear during transient changes in end-tidal CO2 (PETCO2). This novel study aimed to reveal the interaction between cerebral autoregulation and ventilatory control in POTS patients by using tilt table and hyperventilation to alter the CO2 tension between 10 and 30 mmHg. The cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV), partial pressure of end-tidal carbon dioxide (PETCO2), and other cardiopulmonary signals were recorded for POTS patients and two healthy groups including those aged >45 years (Healthy-Elder) and aged <45 years (Healthy-Youth) throughout the experiment. Two nonlinear regression functions, Models I and II, were applied to evaluate their CBFV-PETCO2 relationship and cerebral vasomotor reactivity (CVMR). Among the estimated parameters, the curve-fitting Model I for CBFV and CVMR responses to CO2 for POTS patients demonstrated an observable dissimilarity in CBFVmax (p = 0.011), mid-PETCO2 (p = 0.013), and PETCO2 range (p = 0.023) compared with those of Healthy-Youth and in CBFVmax (p = 0.015) and CVMRmax compared with those of Healthy-Elder. With curve-fitting Model II for POTS patients, the fit parameters of curvilinear (p = 0.036) and PETCO2 level (p = 0.033) displayed significant difference in comparison with Healthy-Youth parameters; range of change (p = 0.042), PETCO2 level, and CBFVmax also displayed a significant difference in comparison with Healthy-Elder parameters. The results of this study contribute toward developing an early accurate diagnosis of impaired CBFV responses to CO2 for POTS patients.
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Hoiland RL, Fisher JA, Ainslie PN. Regulation of the Cerebral Circulation by Arterial Carbon Dioxide. Compr Physiol 2019; 9:1101-1154. [DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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9
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Morrison SA, Mirnik D, Korsic S, Eiken O, Mekjavic IB, Dolenc-Groselj L. Bed Rest and Hypoxic Exposure Affect Sleep Architecture and Breathing Stability. Front Physiol 2017; 8:410. [PMID: 28676764 PMCID: PMC5476730 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Despite over 50 years of research on the physiological effects of sustained bed rest, data characterizing its effects on sleep macrostructure and breathing stability in humans are scarce. This study was conducted to determine the effects of continuous exposure to hypoxia and sustained best rest, both individually and combined, on nocturnal sleep and breathing stability. Methods: Eleven participants completed three randomized, counter-balanced, 21-days trials of: (1) normoxic bed rest (NBR, PIO2 = 133.1 ± 0.3), (2) hypoxic ambulatory confinement (HAMB, PIO2 = 90.0 ± 0.4) and (3) hypoxic bed rest (HBR, PIO2 = 90.0 ± 0.4; ~4,000 m equivalent altitude). Full objective polysomnography was performed at baseline, on Night 1 and Night 21 in each condition. Results: In NBR Night 1, more time was spent in light sleep (10 ± 2%) compared to baseline (8 ± 2%; p = 0.028); Slow-wave sleep (SWS) was reduced from baseline in the hypoxic-only trial by 18% (HAMB Night 21, p = 0.028) and further reduced by 33% (HBR Night 1, p = 0.010), and 36% (HBR Night 21, p = 0.008) when combined with bed rest. The apnea-hypopnea index doubled from Night 1 to Night 21 in HBR (32–62 events·h−1) and HAMB (31–59 events·h−1; p = 0.002). Those who experienced greatest breathing instability from Night 1 to Night 21 (NBR) were correlated to unchanged or higher (+1%) night SpO2 concentrations (R2 = 0.471, p = 0.020). Conclusion: Bed rest negatively affects sleep macrostructure, increases the apnea-hypopnea index, and worsens breathing stability, each independently exacerbated by continuous exposure to hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawnda A Morrison
- Department of Automation, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Stefan InstituteLjubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of PrimorskaIzola, Slovenia.,Division of Neurology, Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical CentreLjubljana, Slovenia
| | - Dani Mirnik
- Division of Neurology, Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical CentreLjubljana, Slovenia
| | - Spela Korsic
- Division of Neurology, Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical CentreLjubljana, Slovenia
| | - Ola Eiken
- Department of Environmental Physiology, Swedish Aerospace Physiology Centre, Royal Institute of TechnologyStockholm, Sweden
| | - Igor B Mekjavic
- Department of Automation, Biocybernetics and Robotics, Jožef Stefan InstituteLjubljana, Slovenia.,Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser UniversityBurnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Leja Dolenc-Groselj
- Division of Neurology, Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical CentreLjubljana, Slovenia
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10
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Horiuchi M, Endo J, Dobashi S, Kiuchi M, Koyama K, Subudhi AW. Effect of progressive normobaric hypoxia on dynamic cerebral autoregulation. Exp Physiol 2016; 101:1276-1284. [DOI: 10.1113/ep085789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science; Mount Fuji Research Institute; Japan
| | - Junko Endo
- Division of Human Environmental Science; Mount Fuji Research Institute; Japan
| | - Shohei Dobashi
- Integrated Graduate School Department of Medicine; Engineering, and Agricultural Sciences; University of Yamanashi; Japan
| | - Masataka Kiuchi
- Integrated Graduate School Department of Medicine; Engineering, and Agricultural Sciences; University of Yamanashi; Japan
| | - Katsuhiro Koyama
- Integrated Graduate School Department of Medicine; Engineering, and Agricultural Sciences; University of Yamanashi; Japan
| | - Andrew W. Subudhi
- Department of Biology; University of Colorado; Colorado Springs CO USA
- Altitude Research Center; University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus; Aurora CO USA
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11
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de Aquino-Lemos V, Santos RVT, Antunes HKM, Lira FS, Luz Bittar IG, Caris AV, Tufik S, de Mello MT. Acute physical exercise under hypoxia improves sleep, mood and reaction time. Physiol Behav 2016; 154:90-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2015] [Revised: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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12
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Lawley JS, Levine BD, Williams MA, Malm J, Eklund A, Polaner DM, Subudhi AW, Hackett PH, Roach RC. Cerebral spinal fluid dynamics: effect of hypoxia and implications for high-altitude illness. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2016; 120:251-62. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00370.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathophysiology of acute mountain sickness and high-altitude cerebral edema, the cerebral forms of high-altitude illness, remain uncertain and controversial. Persistently elevated or pathological fluctuations in intracranial pressure are thought to cause symptoms similar to those reported by individuals suffering cerebral forms of high-altitude illness. This review first focuses on the basic physiology of the craniospinal system, including a detailed discussion of the long-term and dynamic regulation of intracranial pressure. Thereafter, we critically examine the available literature, based primarily on invasive pressure monitoring, that suggests intracranial pressure is acutely elevated at altitude due to brain swelling and/or elevated sagittal sinus pressure, but normalizes over time. We hypothesize that fluctuations in intracranial pressure occur around a slightly elevated or normal mean intracranial pressure, in conjunction with oscillations in arterial Po2 and arterial blood pressure. Then these modest fluctuations in intracranial pressure, in concert with direct vascular stretch due to dilatation and/or increased blood pressure transmission, activate the trigeminal vascular system and cause symptoms of acute mountain sickness. Elevated brain water (vasogenic edema) may be due to breakdown of the blood-brain barrier. However, new information suggests cerebral spinal fluid flux into the brain may be an important factor. Regardless of the source (or mechanisms responsible) for the excess brain water, brain swelling occurs, and a “tight fit” brain would be a major risk factor to produce symptoms; activities that produce large changes in brain volume and cause fluctuations in blood pressure are likely contributing factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin S. Lawley
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Presbyterian Hospital of Dallas, Dallas, Texas
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Benjamin D. Levine
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Presbyterian Hospital of Dallas, Dallas, Texas
- UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
| | - Michael A. Williams
- Sandra and Malcolm Berman Brain & Spine Institute, Dept. of Neurology, Sinai Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jon Malm
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anders Eklund
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - David M. Polaner
- Departments of Anesthesiology and Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine and Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Andrew W. Subudhi
- Department of Biology, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, Colorado
- Altitude Research Center, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; and
| | | | - Robert C. Roach
- Altitude Research Center, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; and
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13
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Morrison SA, Pangerc A, Eiken O, Mekjavic IB, Dolenc-Groselj L. Effect of exercise on night periodic breathing and loop gain during hypoxic confinement. Respirology 2015; 21:746-53. [DOI: 10.1111/resp.12722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shawnda A. Morrison
- Department of Automation, Biocybernetics and Robotics; Jozef Stefan Institute; Ljubljana Slovenia
- Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology; Division of Neurology; University Medical Centre; Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Andrej Pangerc
- Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology; Division of Neurology; University Medical Centre; Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Ola Eiken
- Department of Environmental Physiology; School of Technology and Health; Royal Institute of Technology; Stockholm Sweden
| | - Igor B. Mekjavic
- Department of Automation, Biocybernetics and Robotics; Jozef Stefan Institute; Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Leja Dolenc-Groselj
- Institute of Clinical Neurophysiology; Division of Neurology; University Medical Centre; Ljubljana Slovenia
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14
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Flück D, Siebenmann C, Keiser S, Cathomen A, Lundby C. Cerebrovascular reactivity is increased with acclimatization to 3,454 m altitude. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2015; 35:1323-30. [PMID: 25806704 PMCID: PMC4528007 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2015.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Controversy exists regarding the effect of high-altitude exposure on cerebrovascular CO2 reactivity (CVR). Confounding factors in previous studies include the use of different experimental approaches, ascent profiles, duration and severity of exposure and plausibly environmental factors associated with altitude exposure. One aim of the present study was to determine CVR throughout acclimatization to high altitude when controlling for these. Middle cerebral artery mean velocity (MCAv mean) CVR was assessed during hyperventilation (hypocapnia) and CO2 administration (hypercapnia) with background normoxia (sea level (SL)) and hypoxia (3,454 m) in nine healthy volunteers (26 ± 4 years (mean ± s.d.)) at SL, and after 30 minutes (HA0), 3 (HA3) and 22 (HA22) days of high-altitude (3,454 m) exposure. At altitude, ventilation was increased whereas MCAv mean was not altered. Hypercapnic CVR was decreased at HA0 (1.16% ± 0.16%/mm Hg, mean ± s.e.m.), whereas both hyper- and hypocapnic CVR were increased at HA3 (3.13% ± 0.18% and 2.96% ± 0.10%/mm Hg) and HA22 (3.32% ± 0.12% and 3.24% ± 0.14%/mm Hg) compared with SL (1.98% ± 0.22% and 2.38% ± 0.10%/mm Hg; P < 0.01) regardless of background oxygenation. Cerebrovascular conductance (MCAv mean/mean arterial pressure) CVR was determined to account for blood pressure changes and revealed an attenuated response. Collectively our results show that hypocapnic and hypercapnic CVR are both elevated with acclimatization to high altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Flück
- 1] Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), Zurich, Switzerland [2] Institute of Physiology, ZIHP, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Stefanie Keiser
- 1] Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), Zurich, Switzerland [2] Institute of Physiology, ZIHP, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Cathomen
- Institute of Human Movement Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Carsten Lundby
- 1] Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), Zurich, Switzerland [2] Institute of Physiology, ZIHP, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland [3] Department of Food and Nutrition and Sport Science, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
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15
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Song P, Zhang JH, Qin J, Gao XB, Yu J, Tang XG, Tang CF, Huang L. Smoking is associated with the incidence of AMS: a large-sample cohort study. Mil Med Res 2014; 1:16. [PMID: 25722873 PMCID: PMC4340342 DOI: 10.1186/2054-9369-1-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, the number of people visiting high altitudes has increased. After rapidly ascending to a high altitude, some of these individuals, who reside on plains or other areas of low altitude, have suffered from acute mountain sickness (AMS). Smoking interferes with the body's oxygen metabolism, but research about the relationship between smoking and AMS has yielded controversial results. METHODS We collected demographic data, conducted a smoking history and performed physical examinations on 2000 potential study participants, at sea level. Blood pressure (BP) and pulse oxygen saturation (SpO2) were measured for only some of the patients due to time and manpower limitations. We ultimately recruited 520 smokers and 450 nonsmokers according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria of our study. Following acute high-altitude exposure, we examined their Lake Louise Symptom (LLS) scores, BP, HR and SpO2; however, cerebral blood flow (CBF) was measured for only some of the subjects due to limited time, manpower and equipment. RESULTS Both the incidence of AMS and Lake Louise Symptom (LLS) scores were lower in smokers than in nonsmokers. Comparing AMS-related symptoms between nonsmokers and smokers, the incidence and severity of headaches and the incidence of sleep difficulties were lower in smokers than in nonsmokers. The incidences of both cough and mental status change were higher in smokers than in nonsmokers; blood pressure, HR and cerebral blood flow velocity were lower in smokers than in nonsmokers. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that the incidence of AMS is lower in the smoking group, possibly related to a retardation of cerebral blood flow and a relief of AMS-related symptoms, such as headache.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Song
- />Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
| | - Ji-hang Zhang
- />Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jun Qin
- />Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xu-bin Gao
- />Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Yu
- />Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
| | - Xu-gang Tang
- />Institute of Internal Medicine-Neurology of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
| | - Cai-fa Tang
- />Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
| | - Lan Huang
- />Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of PLA, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400037 People’s Republic of China
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16
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Transfer function analysis for the assessment of cerebral autoregulation using spontaneous oscillations in blood pressure and cerebral blood flow. Med Eng Phys 2014; 36:563-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2014.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2013] [Revised: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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17
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Imray C, Chan C, Stubbings A, Rhodes H, Patey S, Wilson MH, Bailey DM, Wright AD. Time Course Variations in the Mechanisms by Which Cerebral Oxygen Delivery Is Maintained on Exposure to Hypoxia/Altitude. High Alt Med Biol 2014; 15:21-7. [DOI: 10.1089/ham.2013.1079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Imray
- Warwick Medical School, University Hospitals Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust, Warwick, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Chan
- Wirral University Teaching Hospital, Wirral, United Kingdom
| | | | - Hannah Rhodes
- Department Paediatric Surgery, Bristol Royal Hospital for Children, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Susannah Patey
- Department of Anaesthetics, University Hospital of South Manchester, Wythenshawe, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Mark H. Wilson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Imperial College, St Mary's Hospital, Paddington London, United Kingdom
| | - Damian M. Bailey
- Department of Physiology, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Alex D. Wright
- Birmingham Medical Research Expeditionary Society, The Medical School, Birmingham University, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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18
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Abstract
Carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitors, particularly acetazolamide, have been used at high altitude for decades to prevent or reduce acute mountain sickness (AMS), a syndrome of symptomatic intolerance to altitude characterized by headache, nausea, fatigue, anorexia and poor sleep. Principally CA inhibitors act to further augment ventilation over and above that stimulated by the hypoxia of high altitude by virtue of renal and endothelial cell CA inhibition which oppose the hypocapnic alkalosis resulting from the hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR), which acts to limit the full expression of the HVR. The result is even greater arterial oxygenation than that driven by hypoxia alone and greater altitude tolerance. The severity of several additional diseases of high attitude may also be reduced by acetazolamide, including high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and chronic mountain sickness (CMS), both by its CA-inhibiting action as described above, but also by more recently discovered non-CA inhibiting actions, that seem almost unique to this prototypical CA inhibitor and are of most relevance to HAPE. This chapter will relate the history of CA inhibitor use at high altitude, discuss what tissues and organs containing carbonic anhydrase play a role in adaptation and maladaptation to high altitude, explore the role of the enzyme and its inhibition at those sites for the prevention and/or treatment of the four major forms of illness at high altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik R Swenson
- VA Puget Sound Health Care System and Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA,
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19
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Rupp T, Esteve F, Bouzat P, Lundby C, Perrey S, Levy P, Robach P, Verges S. Cerebral hemodynamic and ventilatory responses to hypoxia, hypercapnia, and hypocapnia during 5 days at 4,350 m. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2014; 34:52-60. [PMID: 24064493 PMCID: PMC3887348 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2013.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the changes in cerebral near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) signals, cerebrovascular and ventilatory responses to hypoxia and CO2 during altitude exposure. At sea level (SL), after 24 hours and 5 days at 4,350 m, 11 healthy subjects were exposed to normoxia, isocapnic hypoxia, hypercapnia, and hypocapnia. The following parameters were measured: prefrontal tissue oxygenation index (TOI), oxy- (HbO2), deoxy- and total hemoglobin (HbTot) concentrations with NIRS, blood velocity in the middle cerebral artery (MCAv) with transcranial Doppler and ventilation. Smaller prefrontal deoxygenation and larger ΔHbTot in response to hypoxia were observed at altitude compared with SL (day 5: ΔHbO2-0.6±1.1 versus -1.8±1.3 μmol/cmper mm Hg and ΔHbTot 1.4±1.3 versus 0.7±1.1 μmol/cm per mm Hg). The hypoxic MCAv and ventilatory responses were enhanced at altitude. Prefrontal oxygenation increased less in response to hypercapnia at altitude compared with SL (day 5: ΔTOI 0.3±0.2 versus 0.5±0.3% mm Hg). The hypercapnic MCAv and ventilatory responses were decreased and increased, respectively, at altitude. Hemodynamic responses to hypocapnia did not change at altitude. Short-term altitude exposure improves cerebral oxygenation in response to hypoxia but decreases it during hypercapnia. Although these changes may be relevant for conditions such as exercise or sleep at altitude, they were not associated with symptoms of acute mountain sickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Rupp
- 1] INSERM U1042, Grenoble, France [2] HP2 laboratory, Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, France
| | - François Esteve
- 1] U836/team 6, INSERM, Grenoble, France [2] Grenoble Institute of Neurosciences, Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, France
| | - Pierre Bouzat
- 1] U836/team 6, INSERM, Grenoble, France [2] Grenoble Institute of Neurosciences, Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, France
| | - Carsten Lundby
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane Perrey
- Movement To Health (M2H), Montpellier-1 University, Euromov, France
| | - Patrick Levy
- 1] INSERM U1042, Grenoble, France [2] HP2 laboratory, Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, France
| | - Paul Robach
- 1] INSERM U1042, Grenoble, France [2] HP2 laboratory, Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, France [3] Ecole Nationale de Ski et d'Alpinisme, Chamonix, France
| | - Samuel Verges
- 1] INSERM U1042, Grenoble, France [2] HP2 laboratory, Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble, France
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20
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Ainslie PN, Lucas SJ, Burgess KR. Breathing and sleep at high altitude. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2013; 188:233-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2013.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2013] [Revised: 05/04/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Phillips AA, Ainslie PN, Krassioukov AV, Warburton DER. Regulation of cerebral blood flow after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30:1551-63. [PMID: 23758347 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.2972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Significant cardiovascular and autonomic dysfunction occurs after era spinal cord injury (SCI). Two major conditions arising from autonomic dysfunction are orthostatic hypotension and autonomic dysreflexia (i.e., severe acute hypertension). Effective regulation of cerebral blood flow (CBF) is essential to offset these drastic changes in cerebral perfusion pressure. In the context of orthostatic hypotension and autonomic dysreflexia, the purpose of this review is to critically examine the mechanisms underlying effective CBF after an SCI and propose future avenues for research. Although only 16 studies have examined CBF control in those with high-level SCI (above the sixth thoracic spinal segment), it appears that CBF regulation is markedly altered in this population. Cerebrovascular function comprises three major mechanisms: (1) cerebral autoregulation, (i.e., ΔCBF/Δ blood pressure); (2) cerebrovascular reactivity to changes in PaCO2 (i.e. ΔCBF/arterial gas concentration); and (3) neurovascular coupling (i.e., ΔCBF/Δ metabolic demand). While static cerebral autoregulation appears to be well maintained in high-level SCI, dynamic cerebral autoregulation, cerebrovascular reactivity, and neurovascular coupling appear to be markedly altered. Several adverse complications after high-level SCI may mediate the changes in CBF regulation including: systemic endothelial dysfunction, sleep apnea, dyslipidemia, decentralization of sympathetic control, and dominant parasympathetic activity. Future studies are needed to describe whether altered CBF responses after SCI aid or impede orthostatic tolerance. Further, simultaneous evaluation of extracranial and intracranial CBF, combined with modern structural and functional imaging, would allow for a more comprehensive evaluation of CBF regulatory processes. We are only beginning to understand the functional effects of dysfunctional CBF regulation on brain function on persons with SCI, which are likely to include increased risk of transient ischemic attacks, stroke, and cognitive dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron A Phillips
- Cardiovascular Physiology and Rehabilitation Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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22
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Gavlak JC, Stocks J, Laverty A, Fettes E, Bucks R, Sonnappa S, Cooper J, Grocott MP, Levett DZ, Martin DS, Imray CH, Kirkham FJ. The Young Everest Study: preliminary report of changes in sleep and cerebral blood flow velocity during slow ascent to altitude in unacclimatised children. Arch Dis Child 2013; 98:356-62. [PMID: 23471157 PMCID: PMC3625826 DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2012-302512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV) and sleep physiology in healthy children exposed to hypoxia and hypocarbia are under-researched. AIM To investigate associations between sleep variables, daytime end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) and CBFV in children during high-altitude ascent. METHODS Vital signs, overnight cardiorespiratory sleep studies and transcranial Doppler were undertaken in nine children (aged 6-13 years) at low altitude (130 m), and then at moderate (1300 m) and high (3500 m) altitude during a 5-day ascent. RESULTS Daytime (130 m: 98%; 3500 m: 90%, p=0.004) and mean (130 m: 97%, 1300 m: 94%, 3500: 87%, p=0.0005) and minimum (130 m: 92%, 1300 m: 84%, 3500 m: 79%, p=0.0005) overnight pulse oximetry oxyhaemoglobin saturation decreased, and the number of central apnoeas increased at altitude (130 m: 0.2/h, 1300 m: 1.2/h, 3500 m: 3.5/h, p=0.2), correlating inversely with EtCO2 (R(2) 130 m: 0.78; 3500 m: 0.45). Periodic breathing occurred for median (IQR) 0.0 (0; 0.3)% (130 m) and 0.2 (0; 1.2)% (3500 m) of total sleep time. At 3500 m compared with 130 m, there were increases in middle (MCA) (mean (SD) left 29.2 (42.3)%, p=0.053; right 9.9 (12)%, p=0.037) and anterior cerebral (ACA) (left 65.2 (69)%, p=0.024; right 109 (179)%; p=0.025) but not posterior or basilar CBFV. The right MCA CBFV increase at 3500 m was predicted by baseline CBFV and change in daytime SpO2 and EtCO2 at 3500 m (R(2) 0.92); these associations were not seen on the left. CONCLUSIONS This preliminary report suggests that sleep physiology is disturbed in children even with slow ascent to altitude. The regional variations in CBFV and their association with hypoxia and hypocapnia require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna C Gavlak
- Department of Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Trust, Walrus Ward Level 1, Morgan Stanley Clinical Building, Great Ormond Street, London WC1N 3JH, UK.
| | - Janet Stocks
- Portex Respiratory Unit, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Aidan Laverty
- Department of Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Emma Fettes
- Department of Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Romola Bucks
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Samatha Sonnappa
- Department of Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK,Portex Respiratory Unit, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Janine Cooper
- Developmental Neuroscience Unit, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Michael P Grocott
- Centre for Altitude Space and Extreme Environment Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK,Anaesthesia and Critical Care Research Unit, University Hospitals Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK,Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Denny Z Levett
- Centre for Altitude Space and Extreme Environment Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Daniel S Martin
- Centre for Altitude Space and Extreme Environment Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Christopher H Imray
- Department of Vascular Surgery, University Hospitals Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust, Warwick Medical School, Coventry, UK
| | - Fenella J Kirkham
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK,Neurosciences Units, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK,Department of Child Health, University Hospitals Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK
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23
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Villien M, Bouzat P, Rupp T, Robach P, Lamalle L, Troprès I, Estève F, Krainik A, Lévy P, Warnking JM, Verges S. Changes in cerebral blood flow and vasoreactivity to CO2 measured by arterial spin labeling after 6days at 4350m. Neuroimage 2013; 72:272-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 12/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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24
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Burgess KR, Lucas SJE, Shepherd K, Dawson A, Swart M, Thomas KN, Lucas RAI, Donnelly J, Peebles KC, Basnyat R, Ainslie PN. Worsening of central sleep apnea at high altitude--a role for cerebrovascular function. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2013; 114:1021-8. [PMID: 23429871 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01462.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although periodic breathing during sleep at high altitude occurs almost universally, the likely mechanisms and independent effects of altitude and acclimatization have not been clearly reported. Data from 2005 demonstrated a significant relationship between decline in cerebral blood flow (CBF) at sleep onset and subsequent severity of central sleep apnea that night. We suspected that CBF would decline during partial acclimatization. We hypothesized therefore that reductions in CBF and its reactivity would worsen periodic breathing during sleep following partial acclimatization. Repeated measures of awake ventilatory and CBF responsiveness, arterial blood gases during wakefulness. and overnight polysomnography at sea level, upon arrival (days 2-4), and following partial acclimatization (days 12-15) to 5,050 m were made on 12 subjects. The apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) increased from to 77 ± 49 on days 2-4 to 116 ± 21 on days 12-15 (P = 0.01). The AHI upon initial arrival was associated with marked elevations in CBF (+28%, 68 ± 11 to 87 ± 17 cm/s; P < 0.05) and its reactivity to changes in PaCO2 [>90%, 2.0 ± 0.6 to 3.8 ± 1.5 cm·s(-1)·mmHg(-1) hypercapnia and 1.9 ± 0.4 to 4.1 ± 0.9 cm·s(-1)·mmHg(-1) for hypocapnia (P < 0.05)]. Over 10 days, the increases resolved and AHI worsened. During sleep at high altitude large oscillations in mean CBF velocity (CBFv) occurred, which were 35% higher initially (peak CBFv = 96 cm/s vs. peak CBFv = 71 cm/s) than at days 12-15. Our novel findings suggest that elevations in CBF and its reactivity to CO(2) upon initial ascent to high altitude may provide a protective effect on the development of periodic breathing during sleep (likely via moderating changes in central Pco2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith R Burgess
- Peninsula Sleep Laboratory, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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25
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Lombardi C, Meriggi P, Agostoni P, Faini A, Bilo G, Revera M, Caldara G, Di Rienzo M, Castiglioni P, Maurizio B, Gregorini F, Mancia G, Parati G. High-altitude hypoxia and periodic breathing during sleep: gender-related differences. J Sleep Res 2013; 22:322-30. [DOI: 10.1111/jsr.12012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Lombardi
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
| | - Paolo Meriggi
- Polo Tecnologico; Biomedical Technology Department; Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi Onlus; Milano Italy
| | - Piergiuseppe Agostoni
- Centro Cardiologico Monzino; IRCCS; Milan Italy
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences; University of Milan; Milan Italy
| | - Andrea Faini
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
| | - Grzegorz Bilo
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
- Department of Health Sciences; University Milano-Bicocca; Milan Italy
| | - Miriam Revera
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
- Department of Health Sciences; University Milano-Bicocca; Milan Italy
| | - Gianluca Caldara
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
| | - Marco Di Rienzo
- Polo Tecnologico; Biomedical Technology Department; Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi Onlus; Milano Italy
| | - Paolo Castiglioni
- Polo Tecnologico; Biomedical Technology Department; Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi Onlus; Milano Italy
| | - Bussotti Maurizio
- Cardiologia Riabilitativa; Istituto di Riabilitazione, Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri; IRCCS; Milan Italy
| | - Francesca Gregorini
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
| | - Giuseppe Mancia
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
- Department of Health Sciences; University Milano-Bicocca; Milan Italy
| | - Gianfranco Parati
- Department of Cardiology; S.Luca Hospital, Istituto Auxologico Italiano; IRCCS; Milan Italy
- Department of Health Sciences; University Milano-Bicocca; Milan Italy
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Andrews G, Ainslie PN, Shepherd K, Dawson A, Swart M, Lucas S, Burgess KR. The effect of partial acclimatization to high altitude on loop gain and central sleep apnoea severity. Respirology 2013; 17:835-40. [PMID: 22429599 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2012.02170.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Loop gain is an engineering term that predicts the stability of a feedback control system, such as the control of breathing. Based on earlier studies at lower altitudes, it was hypothesized that acclimatization to high altitude would lead to a reduction in loop gain and thus central sleep apnoea (CSA) severity. METHODS This study used exposure to very high altitude to induce CSA in healthy subjects to investigate the effect of partial acclimatization on loop gain and CSA severity. Measurements were made on 12 subjects (age 30 ± 10 years, body mass index 22.8 ± 1.9, eight males, four females) at an altitude of 5050 m over a 2-week period upon initial arrival (days 2-4) and following partial acclimatization (days 12-14). Sleep was studied by full polysomnography, and resting arterial blood gases were measured. Loop gain was measured by the 'duty cycle' method (duration of hyperpnoea/cycle length). RESULTS Partial acclimatization to high-altitude exposure was associated with both an increase in loop gain (duty cycle fell from 0.60 ± 0.05 to 0.55 ± 0.06 (P = 0.03)) and severity of CSA (apnoea-hypopnoea index increased from 76.8 ± 48.8 to 115.9 ± 20.2 (P = 0.01)), while partial arterial carbon dioxide concentration fell from 29 ± 3 to 26 ± 2 (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Contrary to the results at lower altitudes, at high-altitude loop gain and severity of CSA increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Andrews
- Department of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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27
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Fagenholz PJ, Murray AF, Noble VE, Baggish AL, Harris NS. Ultrasound for high altitude research. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2012; 38:1-12. [PMID: 22104522 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2011.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2011] [Revised: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 10/07/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This review describes ultrasound techniques of potential use to high altitude researchers and discusses technical issues related to using ultrasound for high altitude research. Ultrasound allows portable, noninvasive evaluation of many physiologic parameters of interest to high altitude researchers. We discuss techniques that have been extensively used and emerging techniques that can be used to assess parameters of particular interest to high altitude researchers. We do not provide a definitive description of all ultrasound scanning methods but references to instructive sources are included. Potential drawbacks of ultrasound use, such as the need for sometimes extensive training and the potential for interobserver variation, are discussed and strategies for mitigating these are suggested. This review is meant to encourage other high altitude researchers to consider using ultrasound, either as a primary investigative modality or as an adjunct for monitoring parameters of interest in studies of physiology, altitude illness, or therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Fagenholz
- Department of Surgery, Division of Trauma, Emergency Surgery, and Surgical Critical Care, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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LEN TREVORK, NEARY JPATRICK, ASMUNDSON GORDONJG, GOODMAN DAVIDG, BJORNSON BRUCE, BHAMBHANI YAGESHN. Cerebrovascular Reactivity Impairment after Sport-Induced Concussion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011; 43:2241-8. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3182249539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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29
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Wilson MH, Edsell MEG, Davagnanam I, Hirani SP, Martin DS, Levett DZH, Thornton JS, Golay X, Strycharczuk L, Newman SP, Montgomery HE, Grocott MPW, Imray CHE. Cerebral artery dilatation maintains cerebral oxygenation at extreme altitude and in acute hypoxia--an ultrasound and MRI study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2011; 31:2019-29. [PMID: 21654697 PMCID: PMC3208157 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2011.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial Doppler is a widely used noninvasive technique for assessing cerebral artery blood flow. All previous high altitude studies assessing cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the field that have used Doppler to measure arterial blood velocity have assumed vessel diameter to not alter. Here, we report two studies that demonstrate this is not the case. First, we report the highest recorded study of CBF (7,950 m on Everest) and demonstrate that above 5,300 m, middle cerebral artery (MCA) diameter increases (n=24 at 5,300 m, 14 at 6,400 m, and 5 at 7,950 m). Mean MCA diameter at sea level was 5.30 mm, at 5,300 m was 5.23 mm, at 6,400 m was 6.66 mm, and at 7,950 m was 9.34 mm (P<0.001 for change between 5,300 and 7,950 m). The dilatation at 7,950 m reversed with oxygen. Second, we confirm this dilatation by demonstrating the same effect (and correlating it with ultrasound) during hypoxia (FiO(2)=12% for 3 hours) in a 3-T magnetic resonance imaging study at sea level (n=7). From these results, we conclude that it cannot be assumed that cerebral artery diameter is constant, especially during alterations of inspired oxygen partial pressure, and that transcranial 2D ultrasound is a technique that can be used at the bedside or in the remote setting to assess MCA caliber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Wilson
- Centre for Altitude, Space and Extreme Environment Medicine, Institute of Human Health and Performance, Charterhouse Building, UCL Archway Campus, University College London, London, UK.
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30
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Vogiatzis I, Louvaris Z, Habazettl H, Athanasopoulos D, Andrianopoulos V, Cherouveim E, Wagner H, Roussos C, Wagner PD, Zakynthinos S. Frontal cerebral cortex blood flow, oxygen delivery and oxygenation during normoxic and hypoxic exercise in athletes. J Physiol 2011; 589:4027-39. [PMID: 21727220 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.210880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
During maximal hypoxic exercise, a reduction in cerebral oxygen delivery may constitute a signal to the central nervous system to terminate exercise. We investigated whether the rate of increase in frontal cerebral cortex oxygen delivery is limited in hypoxic compared to normoxic exercise. We assessed frontal cerebral cortex blood flow using near-infrared spectroscopy and the light-absorbing tracer indocyanine green dye, as well as frontal cortex oxygen saturation (S(tO2)%) in 11 trained cyclists during graded incremental exercise to the limit of tolerance (maximal work rate, WRmax) in normoxia and acute hypoxia (inspired O2 fraction (F(IO2)), 0.12). In normoxia, frontal cortex blood flow and oxygen delivery increased (P < 0.05) from baseline to sub-maximal exercise, reaching peak values at near-maximal exercise (80% WRmax: 287 ± 9 W; 81 ± 23% and 75 ± 22% increase relative to baseline, respectively), both leveling off thereafter up to WRmax (382 ± 10 W). Frontal cortex S(tO2)% did not change from baseline (66 ± 3%) throughout graded exercise. During hypoxic exercise, frontal cortex blood flow increased (P = 0.016) from baseline to sub-maximal exercise, peaking at 80% WRmax (213 ± 6 W; 60 ± 15% relative increase) before declining towards baseline at WRmax (289 ± 5 W). Despite this, frontal cortex oxygen delivery remained unchanged from baseline throughout graded exercise, being at WRmax lower than at comparable loads (287 ± 9 W) in normoxia (by 58 ± 12%; P = 0.01). Frontal cortex S(tO2)% fell from baseline (58 ± 2%) on light and moderate exercise in parallel with arterial oxygen saturation, but then remained unchanged to exhaustion (47 ± 1%). Thus, during maximal, but not light to moderate, exercise frontal cortex oxygen delivery is limited in hypoxia compared to normoxia. This limitation could potentially constitute the signal to limit maximal exercise capacity in hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Vogiatzis
- Department of Critical Care Medicine and Pulmonary Services, Evangelismos Hospital, M. Simou, and G.P. Livanos Laboratories, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece.
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Abstract
Cerebral blood flow (CBF) increases and dynamic cerebral autoregulation is impaired by acute hypoxia. We hypothesized that progressive hypocapnia with restoration of arterial oxygen content after altitude acclimatization would normalize CBF and dynamic cerebral autoregulation. To test this hypothesis, dynamic cerebral autoregulation was examined by spectral and transfer function analyses between arterial pressure and CBF velocity variabilities in 11 healthy members of the Danish High-Altitude Research Expedition during normoxia and acute hypoxia (10.5% O(2)) at sea level, and after acclimatization (for over 1 month at 5,260 m at Chacaltaya, Bolivia). Arterial pressure and CBF velocity in the middle cerebral artery (transcranial Doppler), were recorded on a beat-by-beat basis. Steady-state CBF velocity increased during acute hypoxia, but normalized after acclimatization with partial restoration of SaO(2) (acute, 78% ± 2%; chronic, 89% ± 1%) and progression of hypocapnia (end-tidal carbon dioxide: acute, 34 ± 2 mm Hg; chronic, 21 ± 1 mm Hg). Coherence (0.40 ± 0.05 Units at normoxia) and transfer function gain (0.77 ± 0.13 cm/s per mm Hg at normoxia) increased, and phase (0.86 ± 0.15 radians at normoxia) decreased significantly in the very-low-frequency range during acute hypoxia (gain, 141% ± 24%; coherence, 136% ± 29%; phase, -25% ± 22%), which persisted after acclimatization (gain, 136% ± 36%; coherence, 131% ± 50%; phase, -42% ± 13%), together indicating impaired dynamic cerebral autoregulation in this frequency range. The similarity between both acute and chronic conditions suggests that dynamic cerebral autoregulation is impaired by hypoxia even after successful acclimatization to an extreme high altitude.
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Lucas SJE, Burgess KR, Thomas KN, Donnelly J, Peebles KC, Lucas RAI, Fan JL, Cotter JD, Basnyat R, Ainslie PN. Alterations in cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity during 14 days at 5050 m. J Physiol 2010; 589:741-53. [PMID: 21041534 PMCID: PMC3052440 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2010.192534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Upon ascent to high altitude, cerebral blood flow (CBF) rises substantially before returning to sea-level values. The underlying mechanisms for these changes are unclear. We examined three hypotheses: (1) the balance of arterial blood gases upon arrival at and across 2 weeks of living at 5050 m will closely relate to changes in CBF; (2) CBF reactivity to steady-state changes in CO2 will be reduced following this 2 week acclimatisation period, and (3) reductions in CBF reactivity to CO2 will be reflected in an augmented ventilatory sensitivity to CO2. We measured arterial blood gases, middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity (MCAv, index of CBF) and ventilation () at rest and during steady-state hyperoxic hypercapnia (7% CO2) and voluntary hyperventilation (hypocapnia) at sea level and then again following 2–4, 7–9 and 12–15 days of living at 5050 m. Upon arrival at high altitude, resting MCAv was elevated (up 31 ± 31%; P < 0.01; vs. sea level), but returned to sea-level values within 7–9 days. Elevations in MCAv were strongly correlated (R2= 0.40) with the change in ratio (i.e. the collective tendency of arterial blood gases to cause CBF vasodilatation or constriction). Upon initial arrival and after 2 weeks at high altitude, cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia was reduced (P < 0.05), whereas hypocapnic reactivity was enhanced (P < 0.05 vs. sea level). Ventilatory response to hypercapnia was elevated at days 2–4 (P < 0.05 vs. sea level, 4.01 ± 2.98 vs. 2.09 ± 1.32 l min−1 mmHg−1). These findings indicate that: (1) the balance of arterial blood gases accounts for a large part of the observed variability (∼40%) leading to changes in CBF at high altitude; (2) cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia and hypocapnia is differentially affected by high-altitude exposure and remains distorted during partial acclimatisation, and (3) alterations in cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 may also affect ventilatory sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J E Lucas
- Department of Physiology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Møller
- Intensive Care Unit 4131/Centre of Inflammation and Metabolism M7641, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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34
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Thomas KN, Burgess KR, Basnyat R, Lucas SJ, Cotter JD, Fan JL, Peebles KC, Lucas RA, Ainslie PN. Initial Orthostatic Hypotension at High Altitude. High Alt Med Biol 2010; 11:163-7. [DOI: 10.1089/ham.2009.1056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rishi Basnyat
- Nepal International Clinic, Kathmandu, Nepal
- Himalayan Rescue Association, Kathmandu, Nepal
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35
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew W. Subudhi
- From Altitude Research Center (A.W.S., R.C.R.), University of Colorado at Denver, School of Medicine, Denver, Colo; Department of Biology (A.W.S.), University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colo; Department of Cardiovascular Sciences (R.B.P.), University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, UK
| | - Ronney B. Panerai
- From Altitude Research Center (A.W.S., R.C.R.), University of Colorado at Denver, School of Medicine, Denver, Colo; Department of Biology (A.W.S.), University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colo; Department of Cardiovascular Sciences (R.B.P.), University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, UK
| | - Robert C. Roach
- From Altitude Research Center (A.W.S., R.C.R.), University of Colorado at Denver, School of Medicine, Denver, Colo; Department of Biology (A.W.S.), University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colo; Department of Cardiovascular Sciences (R.B.P.), University of Leicester, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, UK
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36
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Ogoh S, Nakahara H, Ainslie PN, Miyamoto T. The effect of oxygen on dynamic cerebral autoregulation: critical role of hypocapnia. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2010; 108:538-43. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01235.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia is known to impair cerebral autoregulation (CA). Previous studies indicate that CA is profoundly affected by cerebrovascular tone, which is largely determined by the partial pressure of arterial O2 and CO2. However, hypoxic-induced hyperventilation via respiratory chemoreflex activation causes hypocapnia, which may influence CA independent of partial pressure of arterial O2. To identify the effect of O2 on dynamic cerebral blood flow regulation, we examined the influence of normoxia, isocapnia hyperoxia, hypoxia, and hypoxia with consequent hypocapnia on dynamic CA. We measured heart rate, blood pressure, ventilatory parameters, and middle cerebral artery blood velocity (transcranial Doppler). Dynamic CA was assessed ( n = 9) during each of four randomly assigned respiratory interventions: 1) normoxia (21% O2); 2) isocapnic hyperoxia (40% O2); 3) isocapnic hypoxia (14% O2); and 4) hypocapnic hypoxia (14% O2). During each condition, the rate of cerebral regulation (RoR), an established index of dynamic CA, was estimated during bilateral thigh cuff-induced transient hypotension. The RoR was unaltered during isocapnic hyperoxia. Isocapnic hypoxia attenuated the RoR (0.202 ± 0.003/s; 27%; P = 0.043), indicating impairment in dynamic CA. In contrast, hypocapnic hypoxia increased RoR (0.444 ± 0.069/s) from normoxia (0.311 ± 0.054/s; +55%; P = 0.041). These findings indicated that hypoxia disrupts dynamic CA, but hypocapnia augments the dynamic CA response. Because hypocapnia is a consequence of hypoxic-induced chemoreflex activation, it may provide a teleological means to effectively maintain dynamic CA in the face of prevailing arterial hypoxemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigehiko Ogoh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Toyo University, Saitama; and
| | | | - Philip N. Ainslie
- Department of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health and Social Development, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, Canada; and
| | - Tadayoshi Miyamoto
- Morinomiya University of Medical Sciences, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Cardiovascular Dynamics, National Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, Osaka, Japan
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Burgess KR, Fan JL, Peebles K, Thomas K, Lucas S, Lucas R, Dawson A, Swart M, Shepherd K, Ainslie P. Exacerbation of Obstructive Sleep Apnea by Oral Indomethacin. Chest 2010; 137:707-10. [DOI: 10.1378/chest.09-1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
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38
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Ogoh S, Ainslie PN. Cerebral blood flow during exercise: mechanisms of regulation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009; 107:1370-80. [PMID: 19729591 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00573.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The response of cerebral vasculature to exercise is different from other peripheral vasculature; it has a small vascular bed and is strongly regulated by cerebral autoregulation and the partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide (Pa(CO(2))). In contrast to other organs, the traditional thinking is that total cerebral blood flow (CBF) remains relatively constant and is largely unaffected by a variety of conditions, including those imposed during exercise. Recent research, however, indicates that cerebral neuronal activity and metabolism drive an increase in CBF during exercise. Increases in exercise intensity up to approximately 60% of maximal oxygen uptake produce elevations in CBF, after which CBF decreases toward baseline values because of lower Pa(CO(2)) via hyperventilation-induced cerebral vasoconstriction. This finding indicates that, during heavy exercise, CBF decreases despite the cerebral metabolic demand. In contrast, this reduced CBF during heavy exercise lowers cerebral oxygenation and therefore may act as an independent influence on central fatigue. In this review, we highlight methodological considerations relevant for the assessment of CBF and then summarize the integrative mechanisms underlying the regulation of CBF at rest and during exercise. In addition, we examine how CBF regulation during exercise is altered by exercise training, hypoxia, and aging and suggest avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigehiko Ogoh
- Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, Toyo Univ., 2100 Kujirai, Kawagoe-shi, Saitama 350-8585, Japan.
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39
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Ainslie PN, Ogoh S. Regulation of cerebral blood flow in mammals during chronic hypoxia: a matter of balance. Exp Physiol 2009; 95:251-62. [PMID: 19617269 DOI: 10.1113/expphysiol.2008.045575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory-induced changes in the partial pressures of arterial carbon dioxide (PaCO2) and oxygen (PaO2) play a major role in cerebral blood flow (CBF) regulation. Elevations in PaCO2 (hypercapnia) lead to vasodilatation and increases in CBF, whereas reductions in PaCO2 (hypocapnia) lead to vasoconstriction and decreases in CBF. A fall in PaO2 (hypoxia) below a certain threshold (<40-45 mmHg) also produces cerebral vasodilatation. Upon initial exposure to hypoxia, CBF is elevated via a greater relative degree of hypoxia compared with hypocapnia. At this point, hypoxia-induced elevations in blood pressure and loss of cerebral autoregulation, stimulation of neuronal pathways, angiogenesis, release of adenosine, endothelium-derived NO and a variety of autocoids and cytokines are additional factors acting to increase CBF. Following 2-3 days, however, the process of ventilatory acclimatization results in a progressive rise in ventilation, which increases PaO2 and reduces PaCO2, collectively acting to attenuate the initial rise in CBF. Other factors acting to lower CBF include elevations in haematocrit, sympathetic nerve activity and local and endothelium-derived vasoconstrictors. Hypoxia-induced alterations of cerebrovascular reactivity, autoregulation and pulmonary vascular tone may also affect CBF. Thus, the extent of change in CBF during exposure to hypoxia is dependent on the balance between the myriad of vasodilators and constrictors derived from the endothelium, neuronal innervations and perfusion pressure. This review examines the extent and mechanisms by which hypoxia regulates CBF. Particular focus will be given to the marked influence of hypoxia associated with exposure to high altitude and chronic lung disease. The associated implications of these hypoxia-induced integrative alterations for the regulation of CBF are discussed, and future avenues for research are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip N Ainslie
- Department of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health and Social Development, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna V1V 1V7, Canada.
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40
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Xie A, Skatrud JB, Barczi SR, Reichmuth K, Morgan BJ, Mont S, Dempsey JA. Influence of cerebral blood flow on breathing stability. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009; 106:850-6. [PMID: 19118158 PMCID: PMC2660251 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.90914.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Accepted: 12/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous work showed a diminished cerebral blood flow (CBF) response to changes in Pa(CO(2)) in congestive heart failure patients with central sleep apnea compared with those without apnea. Since the regulation of CBF serves to minimize oscillations in H(+) and Pco(2) at the site of the central chemoreceptors, it may play an important role in maintaining breathing stability. We hypothesized that an attenuated cerebrovascular reactivity to changes in Pa(CO(2)) would narrow the difference between the eupneic Pa(CO(2)) and the apneic threshold Pa(CO(2)) (DeltaPa(CO(2))), known as the CO(2) reserve, thereby making the subjects more susceptible to apnea. Accordingly, in seven normal subjects, we used indomethacin (Indo; 100 mg by mouth) sufficient to reduce the CBF response to CO(2) by approximately 25% below control. The CO(2) reserve was estimated during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. The apnea threshold was determined, both with and without Indo, in NREM sleep, in a random order using a ventilator in pressure support mode to gradually reduce Pa(CO(2)) until apnea occurred. results: Indo significantly reduced the CO(2) reserve required to produce apnea from 6.3 +/- 0.5 to 4.4 +/- 0.7 mmHg (P = 0.01) and increased the slope of the ventilation decrease in response to hypocapnic inhibition below eupnea (control vs. Indo: 1.06 +/- 0.10 vs. 1.61 +/- 0.27 l x min(-1) x mmHg(-1), P < 0.05). We conclude that reductions in the normal cerebral vascular response to hypocapnia will increase the susceptibility to apneas and breathing instability during sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ailiang Xie
- Departments of Medicin, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, USA.
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41
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Ainslie PN, Duffin J. Integration of cerebrovascular CO2 reactivity and chemoreflex control of breathing: mechanisms of regulation, measurement, and interpretation. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2009; 296:R1473-95. [PMID: 19211719 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.91008.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 398] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral blood flow (CBF) and its distribution are highly sensitive to changes in the partial pressure of arterial CO(2) (Pa(CO(2))). This physiological response, termed cerebrovascular CO(2) reactivity, is a vital homeostatic function that helps regulate and maintain central pH and, therefore, affects the respiratory central chemoreceptor stimulus. CBF increases with hypercapnia to wash out CO(2) from brain tissue, thereby attenuating the rise in central Pco(2), whereas hypocapnia causes cerebral vasoconstriction, which reduces CBF and attenuates the fall of brain tissue Pco(2). Cerebrovascular reactivity and ventilatory response to Pa(CO(2)) are therefore tightly linked, so that the regulation of CBF has an important role in stabilizing breathing during fluctuating levels of chemical stimuli. Indeed, recent reports indicate that cerebrovascular responsiveness to CO(2), primarily via its effects at the level of the central chemoreceptors, is an important determinant of eupneic and hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness in otherwise healthy humans during wakefulness, sleep, and exercise and at high altitude. In particular, reductions in cerebrovascular responsiveness to CO(2) that provoke an increase in the gain of the chemoreflex control of breathing may underpin breathing instability during central sleep apnea in patients with congestive heart failure and on ascent to high altitude. In this review, we summarize the major factors that regulate CBF to emphasize the integrated mechanisms, in addition to Pa(CO(2)), that control CBF. We discuss in detail the assessment and interpretation of cerebrovascular reactivity to CO(2). Next, we provide a detailed update on the integration of the role of cerebrovascular CO(2) reactivity and CBF in regulation of chemoreflex control of breathing in health and disease. Finally, we describe the use of a newly developed steady-state modeling approach to examine the effects of changes in CBF on the chemoreflex control of breathing and suggest avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip N Ainslie
- Department of Physiology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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42
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Ainslie PN, Celi L, McGrattan K, Peebles K, Ogoh S. Dynamic cerebral autoregulation and baroreflex sensitivity during modest and severe step changes in arterial PCO2. Brain Res 2008; 1230:115-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2008] [Revised: 07/10/2008] [Accepted: 07/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Rivera-Ch M, Huicho L, Bouchet P, Richalet JP, León-Velarde F. Effect of acetazolamide on ventilatory response in subjects with chronic mountain sickness. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2008; 162:184-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2008.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2007] [Revised: 06/05/2008] [Accepted: 06/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Ainslie PN, Burgess KR. Cardiorespiratory and cerebrovascular responses to hyperoxic and hypoxic rebreathing: Effects of acclimatization to high altitude. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2008; 161:201-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2008.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2007] [Revised: 01/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Ainslie PN, Ogoh S, Burgess K, Celi L, McGrattan K, Peebles K, Murrell C, Subedi P, Burgess KR. Differential effects of acute hypoxia and high altitude on cerebral blood flow velocity and dynamic cerebral autoregulation: alterations with hyperoxia. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2007; 104:490-8. [PMID: 18048592 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00778.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesized that 1) acute severe hypoxia, but not hyperoxia, at sea level would impair dynamic cerebral autoregulation (CA); 2) impairment in CA at high altitude (HA) would be partly restored with hyperoxia; and 3) hyperoxia at HA and would have more influence on blood pressure (BP) and less influence on middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity (MCAv). In healthy volunteers, BP and MCAv were measured continuously during normoxia and in acute hypoxia (inspired O2 fraction = 0.12 and 0.10, respectively; n = 10) or hyperoxia (inspired O2 fraction, 1.0; n = 12). Dynamic CA was assessed using transfer-function gain, phase, and coherence between mean BP and MCAv. Arterial blood gases were also obtained. In matched volunteers, the same variables were measured during air breathing and hyperoxia at low altitude (LA; 1,400 m) and after 1-2 days after arrival at HA ( approximately 5,400 m, n = 10). In acute hypoxia and hyperoxia, BP was unchanged whereas it was decreased during hyperoxia at HA (-11 +/- 4%; P < 0.05 vs. LA). MCAv was unchanged during acute hypoxia and at HA; however, acute hyperoxia caused MCAv to fall to a greater extent than at HA (-12 +/- 3 vs. -5 +/- 4%, respectively; P < 0.05). Whereas CA was unchanged in hyperoxia, gain in the low-frequency range was reduced during acute hypoxia, indicating improvement in CA. In contrast, HA was associated with elevations in transfer-function gain in the very low- and low-frequency range, indicating CA impairment; hyperoxia lowered these elevations by approximately 50% (P < 0.05). Findings indicate that hyperoxia at HA can partially improve CA and lower BP, with little effect on MCAv.
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Abstract
After defining the current approach to measuring the hypoxic ventilatory response this paper explains why this method is not appropriate for comparisons between individuals or conditions, and does not adequately measure the parameters of the peripheral chemoreflex. A measurement regime is therefore proposed that incorporates three procedures. The first procedure measures the peripheral chemoreflex responsiveness to both hypoxia and CO(2) in terms of hypoxia's effects on the sensitivity and ventilatory recruitment threshold of the peripheral chemoreflex response to CO(2). The second and third procedures employ current methods for measuring the isocapnic and poikilocapnic ventilatory responses to hypoxia, respectively, over a period of 20 min. The isocapnic measure is used to determine the time course characteristics of hypoxic ventilatory decline and the poikilocapnic measure shows the ventilatory response to a hypoxic environment. A measurement regime incorporating these three procedures will permit a detailed assessment of the peripheral chemoreflex response to hypoxia that allows comparisons to be made between individuals and different physiological and environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Duffin
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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Peebles K, Celi L, McGrattan K, Murrell C, Thomas K, Ainslie PN. Human cerebrovascular and ventilatory CO2 reactivity to end-tidal, arterial and internal jugular vein PCO2. J Physiol 2007; 584:347-57. [PMID: 17690148 PMCID: PMC2277051 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2007.137075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined cerebrovascular reactivity and ventilation during step changes in CO(2) in humans. We hypothesized that: (1) end-tidal P(CO(2)) (P(ET,CO(2))) would overestimate arterial P(CO(2)) (P(a,CO(2))) during step variations in P(ET,CO(2)) and thus underestimate cerebrovascular CO(2) reactivity; and (2) since P(CO(2)) from the internal jugular vein (P(jv,CO(2))) better represents brain tissue P(CO(2)), cerebrovascular CO(2) reactivity would be higher when expressed against P(jv,CO(2)) than with P(a,CO(2)), and would be related to the degree of ventilatory change during hypercapnia. Incremental hypercapnia was achieved through 4 min administrations of 4% and 8% CO(2). Incremental hypocapnia involved two 4 min steps of hyperventilation to change P(ET,CO(2)), in an equal and opposite direction, to that incurred during hypercapnia. Arterial and internal jugular venous blood was sampled simultaneously at baseline and during each CO(2) step. Cerebrovascular reactivity to CO(2) was expressed as the percentage change in blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery (MCAv) per mmHg change in P(a,CO(2)) and P(jv,CO(2)). During hypercapnia, but not hypocapnia, P(ET,CO(2)) overestimated P(a,CO(2)) by +2.4 +/- 3.4 mmHg and underestimated MCAv-CO(2) reactivity (P < 0.05). The hypercapnic and hypocapnic MCAv-CO(2) reactivity was higher ( approximately 97% and approximately 24%, respectively) when expressed with P(jv,CO(2)) than P(a,CO(2)) (P < 0.05). The hypercapnic MCAv-P(jv,CO(2)) reactivity was inversely related to the increase in ventilatory change (R(2) = 0.43; P < 0.05), indicating that a reduced reactivity results in less central CO(2) washout and greater ventilatory stimulus. Differences in the P(ET,CO(2)), P(a,CO(2)) and P(jv,CO(2))-MCAv relationships have implications for the true representation and physiological interpretation of cerebrovascular CO(2) reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Peebles
- Department of Physiology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Ainslie PN, Barach A, Cummings KJ, Murrell C, Hamlin M, Hellemans J. Cardiorespiratory and cerebrovascular responses to acute poikilocapnic hypoxia following intermittent and continuous exposure to hypoxia in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2007; 102:1953-61. [PMID: 17234798 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01338.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We tested the hypothesis that intermittent hypoxia (IH) and/or continuous hypoxia (CH) would enhance the ventilatory response to acute hypoxia (HVR), thereby altering blood pressure (BP) and cerebral perfusion. Seven healthy volunteers were randomly selected to complete 10–12 days of IH (5-min hypoxia to 5-min normoxia repeated for 90 min) before ascending to mild CH (1,560 m) for 12 days. Seven other volunteers did not receive any IH before ascending to CH for the same 12 days. Before the IH and CH, following 12 days of CH and 12–13 days post-CH exposure, all subjects underwent a 20-min acute exposure to poikilocapnic hypoxia (inspired fraction of O2, 0.12) in which ventilation, end-tidal gases, arterial O2 saturation, BP, and middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity (MCAV) were measured continuously. Following the IH and CH exposures, the peak HVR was elevated and was related to the increase in BP ( r = 0.66 to r = 0.88, respectively; P < 0.05) and to a reciprocal decrease in MCAV ( r = 0.73 to r = 0.80 vs. preexposures; P < 0.05) during the hypoxic test. Following both IH and CH exposures, HVR, BP, and MCAV sensitivity to hypoxia were elevated compared with preexposure, with no between-group differences following the IH and/or CH conditions, or persistent effects following 12 days of sea level exposure. Our findings indicate that IH and/or mild CH can equally enhance the HVR, which, by either direct or indirect mechanisms, facilitates alterations in BP and MCAV.
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Cummings KJ, Swart M, Ainslie PN. Morning attenuation in cerebrovascular CO2 reactivity in healthy humans is associated with a lowered cerebral oxygenation and an augmented ventilatory response to CO2. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2007; 102:1891-8. [PMID: 17317869 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01437.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesized that, in healthy subjects without pharmacological intervention, an overnight reduction in cerebrovascular CO2 reactivity would be associated with an elevated hypercapnic ventilatory [ventilation (V̇e)] responsiveness and a reduction in cerebral oxygenation. In 20 healthy male individuals with no sleep-related disorders, continuous recordings of blood velocity in the middle cerebral artery, arterial blood pressure, V̇e, end-tidal gases, and frontal cortical oxygenation using near infrared spectroscopy were monitored during hypercapnia (inspired CO2, 5%), hypoxia [arterial O2 saturation (SaO2) ∼84%], and during a 20-s breath hold to investigate the related responses to hypercapnia, hypoxia, and apnea, respectively. Measurements were conducted in the evening (6–8 PM) and in the early morning (6–8 AM). From evening to morning, the cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia was reduced (5.3 ± 0.6 vs. 4.6 ± 1.1%/Torr; P < 0.05) and was associated with a reduced increase in cerebral oxygenation ( r = 0.39; P < 0.05) and an elevated morning hypercapnic V̇e response ( r = 0.54; P < 0.05). While there were no overnight changes in cerebrovascular reactivity or V̇e response to hypoxia, there was greater cerebral desaturation for a given SaO2 in the morning (AM, −0.45 ± 0.14 vs. PM, −0.35 ± 0.14%/SaO2; P < 0.05). Following the 20-s breath hold, in the morning, there was a smaller surge middle cerebral artery velocity and cerebral oxygenation ( P < 0.05 vs. PM). These data indicate that normal diurnal changes in the cerebrovascular response to CO2 influence the hypercapnic ventilatory response as well as the level of cerebral oxygenation during changes in arterial Pco2; this may be a contributing factor for diurnal changes in breathing stability and the high incidence of stroke in the morning.
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Jansen GFA, Krins A, Basnyat B, Odoom JA, Ince C. Role of the altitude level on cerebral autoregulation in residents at high altitude. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2007; 103:518-23. [PMID: 17463295 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01429.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral autoregulation is impaired in Himalayan high-altitude residents who live above 4,200 m. This study was undertaken to determine the altitude at which this impairment of autoregulation occurs. A second aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that administration of oxygen can reverse this impairment in autoregulation at high altitudes. In four groups of 10 Himalayan high-altitude dwellers residing at 1,330, 2,650, 3,440, and 4,243 m, arterial oxygen saturation (Sa(O(2))), blood pressure, and middle cerebral artery blood velocity were monitored during infusion of phenylephrine to determine static cerebral autoregulation. On the basis of these measurements, the cerebral autoregulation index (AI) was calculated. Normally, AI is between zero and 1. AI of 0 implies absent autoregulation, and AI of 1 implies intact autoregulation. At 1,330 m (Sa(O(2)) = 97%), 2,650 m (Sa(O(2)) = 96%), and 3,440 m (Sa(O(2)) = 93%), AI values (mean +/- SD) were, respectively, 0.63 +/- 0.27, 0.57 +/- 0.22, and 0.57 +/- 0.15. At 4,243 m (Sa(O(2)) = 88%), AI was 0.22 +/- 0.18 (P < 0.0005, compared with AI at the lower altitudes) and increased to 0.49 +/- 0.23 (P = 0.008, paired t-test) when oxygen was administered (Sa(O(2)) = 98%). In conclusion, high-altitude residents living at 4,243 m have almost total loss of cerebral autoregulation, which improved during oxygen administration. Those people living at 3,440 m and lower have still functioning cerebral autoregulation. This study showed that the altitude region between 3,440 and 4,243 m, marked by Sa(O(2)) in the high-altitude dwellers of 93% and 88%, is a transitional zone, above which cerebral autoregulation becomes critically impaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerard F A Jansen
- Dept. of Anesthesiology, H1-Z, Academic Medical Centre, Univ. of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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