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Kazemeini E, Van de Perck E, Dieltjens M, Willemen M, Verbraecken J, Op de Beeck S, Vanderveken OM. Critical to Know Pcrit: A Review on Pharyngeal Critical Closing Pressure in Obstructive Sleep Apnea. Front Neurol 2022; 13:775709. [PMID: 35273554 PMCID: PMC8901991 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.775709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is crucial to understand the underlying pathophysiology of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Upper airway collapsibility is an important pathophysiological factor that affects the upper airway in OSA. The aim of the current study was to review the existing body of knowledge on the pharyngeal collapsibility in OSA. After a thorough search through Medline, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of science, the relevant articles were found and used in this study. Critical closing pressure (Pcrit) is the gold standard measure for the degree of collapsibility of the pharyngeal airway. Various physiological factors and treatments affect upper airway collapsibility. Recently, it has been shown that the baseline value of Pcrit is helpful in the upfront selection of therapy options. The standard techniques to measure Pcrit are labor-intensive and time-consuming. Therefore, despite the importance of Pcrit, it is not routinely measured in clinical practice. New emerging surrogates, such as finite element (FE) modeling or the use of peak inspiratory flow measurements during a routine overnight polysomnography, may enable clinicians to have an estimate of the pharyngeal collapsibility. However, validation of these techniques is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elahe Kazemeini
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.,Ear, Nose, Throat, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Eli Van de Perck
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.,Ear, Nose, Throat, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Marijke Dieltjens
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.,Ear, Nose, Throat, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Marc Willemen
- Multidisciplinary Sleep Disorders Centre, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Johan Verbraecken
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.,Multidisciplinary Sleep Disorders Centre, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium.,Department of Pulmonology, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Sara Op de Beeck
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.,Ear, Nose, Throat, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium.,Multidisciplinary Sleep Disorders Centre, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Olivier M Vanderveken
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.,Ear, Nose, Throat, Head and Neck Surgery, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium.,Multidisciplinary Sleep Disorders Centre, Antwerp University Hospital, Edegem, Belgium
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2
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Takahashi T, Sakai N, Iwasaki T, Doyle TC, Mobley WC, Nishino S. Detailed evaluation of the upper airway in the Dp(16)1Yey mouse model of Down syndrome. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21323. [PMID: 33288820 PMCID: PMC7721723 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78278-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A high prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been reported in Down syndrome (DS) owing to the coexistence of multiple predisposing factors related to its genetic abnormality, posing a challenge for the management of OSA. We hypothesized that DS mice recapitulate craniofacial abnormalities and upper airway obstruction of human DS and can serve as an experimental platform for OSA research. This study, thus, aimed to quantitatively characterize the upper airway as well as craniofacial abnormalities in Dp(16)1Yey (Dp16) mice. Dp16 mice demonstrated craniofacial hypoplasia, especially in the ventral part of the skull and the mandible, and rostrally positioned hyoid. These changes were accompanied with a shorter length and smaller cross-sectional area of the upper airway, resulting in a significantly reduced upper airway volume in Dp16 mice. Our non-invasive approach, a combination of computational fluid dynamics and high-resolution micro-CT imaging, revealed a higher negative pressure inside the airway of Dp16 mice compared to wild-type littermates, showing the potential risk of upper airway collapse. Our study indicated that Dp16 mice can be a useful model to examine the pathophysiology of increased upper airway collapsibility of DS and to evaluate the efficacy of therapeutic interventions for breathing and sleep anomalies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsunori Takahashi
- Sleep and Circadian Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Room 2141, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA.,Department of Medicine, Jacobi Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1400 Pelham Parkway South, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Noriaki Sakai
- Sleep and Circadian Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Room 2141, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA.
| | - Tomonori Iwasaki
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 8-35-1, Sakuragaoka, Kagoshima, Kagoshima, 8908544, Japan
| | - Timothy C Doyle
- The Neuroscience Community Labs, Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, 318 Campus Drive, Suite S170, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - William C Mobley
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Seiji Nishino
- Sleep and Circadian Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Room 2141, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
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3
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Pilarski JQ, Leiter JC, Fregosi RF. Muscles of Breathing: Development, Function, and Patterns of Activation. Compr Physiol 2019; 9:1025-1080. [PMID: 31187893 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This review is a comprehensive description of all muscles that assist lung inflation or deflation in any way. The developmental origin, anatomical orientation, mechanical action, innervation, and pattern of activation are described for each respiratory muscle fulfilling this broad definition. In addition, the circumstances in which each muscle is called upon to assist ventilation are discussed. The number of "respiratory" muscles is large, and the coordination of respiratory muscles with "nonrespiratory" muscles and in nonrespiratory activities is complex-commensurate with the diversity of activities that humans pursue, including sleep (8.27). The capacity for speech and adoption of the bipedal posture in human evolution has resulted in patterns of respiratory muscle activation that differ significantly from most other animals. A disproportionate number of respiratory muscles affect the nose, mouth, pharynx, and larynx, reflecting the vital importance of coordinated muscle activity to control upper airway patency during both wakefulness and sleep. The upright posture has freed the hands from locomotor functions, but the evolutionary history and ontogeny of forelimb muscles pervades the patterns of activation and the forces generated by these muscles during breathing. The distinction between respiratory and nonrespiratory muscles is artificial, as many "nonrespiratory" muscles can augment breathing under conditions of high ventilator demand. Understanding the ontogeny, innervation, activation patterns, and functions of respiratory muscles is clinically useful, particularly in sleep medicine. Detailed explorations of how the nervous system controls the multiple muscles required for successful completion of respiratory behaviors will continue to be a fruitful area of investigation. © 2019 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 9:1025-1080, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Q Pilarski
- Department of Biological and Dental Sciences, Idaho State University Pocatello, Idaho, USA
| | - James C Leiter
- Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Ralph F Fregosi
- Departments of Physiology and Neuroscience, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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Chen NH, Lin SW, Chuang LP, Cistulli PA, Hsieh MJ, Kao KC, Liao YF, Li LF, Yang CT. Pharyngeal distensibility during expiration is an independent predictor of the severity of obstructive sleep apnoea. Respirology 2019; 24:582-589. [PMID: 30675958 DOI: 10.1111/resp.13474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 11/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Pharyngeal distensibility and collapsibility reflect the passive properties of tissue in the airway, are an indicator of the ease with which an airway can be deformed and are related to the severity of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). During normal tidal respiration, the collapsibility of the pharynx during expiration is passive without confounding by neuromuscular activation that occurs during inspiration. We evaluated the distensibility and collapsibility of the upper airway in subjects with OSA during wakefulness using sophisticated dynamic computed tomography (CT) imaging. We hypothesized that the dynamic changes of the upper airway during expiration would be related to the severity of OSA. METHODS Twenty-three patients with OSA and eight normal subjects underwent simultaneous measurement of respiratory flow and airway calibre using ultrafast CT. The change in pharyngeal cross-sectional area divided by the change in concomitant flow (as distensibility or collapsibility) was measured and compared across different severities of OSA. RESULTS The slope of this relationship between delta area and delta flow during expiration was significantly higher in severe OSA when compared with normal controls and mild-moderate OSA. Differences in airway distensibility or collapsibility between severity groups were significant in expiration but not in inspiration. Distensibility or collapsibility contributed most to the apnoea-hypopnoea index in regression modelling. Age, gender, and body mass index (BMI) were not significant independent predictors. CONCLUSION Our study demonstrates that airway distensibility during the expiratory phase of awake respiration is correlated with the severity of OSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning-Hung Chen
- Sleep Center, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Respiratory Therapy, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Wei Lin
- Sleep Center, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Li-Pang Chuang
- Sleep Center, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Peter A Cistulli
- Department of Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Charles Perkins Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Meng-Jer Hsieh
- Department of Respiratory Therapy, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Chin Kao
- Sleep Center, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Respiratory Therapy, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Fang Liao
- Sleep Center, Department of Craniofacial Orthodontics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Li-Fu Li
- Sleep Center, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ta Yang
- Sleep Center, Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Department of Respiratory Therapy, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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Nishimura Y, Arias RS, Pho H, Pham LV, Curado TF, Polotsky VY, Schwartz AR. A Novel Non-invasive Approach for Measuring Upper Airway Collapsibility in Mice. Front Neurol 2018; 9:985. [PMID: 30524362 PMCID: PMC6256100 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Invasive procedures were previously developed for measuring pharyngeal collapsibility in rodents during expiration, when declining neuromuscular activity makes the airway unstable. We developed a non-invasive approach for streamlining collapsibility measurements by characterizing responses in physiologic markers of dynamic expiratory airflow obstruction to negative nasal pressure challenges. Methods: Anesthetized mice were instrumented to monitor upper airway pressure-flow relationships with head-out plethysmography while nasal pressure was ramped down from ~ +5 to -20 cm H2O over several breaths. Inspiratory and expiratory flow, volume, and timing characteristics were assessed breath-wise. Pcrit was estimated at transitions in expiratory amplitude and timing parameters, and compared to gold standard PCRIT measurements when nasal and tracheal pressures diverged during expiration. Predictions equations were constructed in a development data set (n = 8) and applied prospectively to a validation data set (n = 16) to estimate gold standard PCRIT. Results: The development data demonstrated that abrupt reversals in expiratory duration and tidal volume during nasal pressure ramps predicted gold standard PCRIT measurements. After applying regression equations from the development to a validation dataset, we found that a combination of expiratory amplitude and timing parameters proved to be robust predictors of gold standard PCRIT with minimal bias and narrow confidence intervals. Conclusions: Markers of expiratory airflow obstruction can be used to model upper airway collapsibility, and can provide sensitive measures of changes in airway collapsibility in rodents. This approach streamlines repeated non-invasive PCRIT measurements, and facilitates studies examining the impact of genetic, environmental, and pharmacologic factors on upper airway control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichi Nishimura
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Otolaryngology, Teikyo University Chiba Medical Center, Chiba, Japan
| | - Rafael S Arias
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Huy Pho
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Luu Van Pham
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Thomaz Fleury Curado
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Vsevolod Y Polotsky
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Alan R Schwartz
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
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6
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Li Z, Wu W, Gu L, Zhao T, Qin G. Lack of association variants of leptin and leptin receptor gene and OSAHS in Chinese Han population. Sleep Biol Rhythms 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s41105-015-0022-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Strohl KP. Re: Effects of leptin and obesity on the upper airway function by Polotsky et al. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2012; 112:1623-4. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00366.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kingman P. Strohl
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, University Hospitals Case Medical Center, and Louis Stokes Cleveland DVA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
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8
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Hernandez AB, Kirkness JP, Smith PL, Schneider H, Polotsky M, Richardson RA, Hernandez WC, Schwartz AR. Novel whole body plethysmography system for the continuous characterization of sleep and breathing in a mouse. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2011; 112:671-80. [PMID: 22134700 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00818.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep is associated with marked alterations in ventilatory control that lead to perturbations in respiratory timing, breathing pattern, ventilation, pharyngeal collapsibility, and sleep-related breathing disorders (SRBD). Mouse models offer powerful insight into the pathogenesis of SRBD; however, methods for obtaining the full complement of continuous, high-fidelity respiratory, electroencephalographic (EEG), and electromyographic (EMG) signals in unrestrained mice during sleep and wake have not been developed. We adapted whole body plethysmography to record EEG, EMG, and respiratory signals continuously in unrestrained, unanesthetized mice. Whole body plethysmography tidal volume and airflow signals and a novel noninvasive surrogate for respiratory effort (respiratory movement signal) were validated against simultaneously measured gold standard signals. Compared with the gold standard, we validated 1) tidal volume (correlation, R(2) = 0.87, P < 0.001; and agreement within 1%, P < 0.001); 2) inspiratory airflow (correlation, R(2) = 0.92, P < 0.001; agreement within 4%, P < 0.001); 3) expiratory airflow (correlation, R(2) = 0.83, P < 0.001); and 4) respiratory movement signal (correlation, R(2) = 0.79-0.84, P < 0.001). The expiratory airflow signal, however, demonstrated a decrease in amplitude compared with the gold standard. Integrating respiratory and EEG/EMG signals, we fully characterized sleep and breathing patterns in conscious, unrestrained mice and demonstrated inspiratory flow limitation in a New Zealand Obese mouse. Our approach will facilitate studies of SRBD mechanisms in inbred mouse strains and offer a powerful platform to investigate the effects of environmental and pharmacological exposures on breathing disturbances during sleep and wakefulness.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Hernandez
- Sleep Disorders Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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9
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Cao Y, McGuire M, Liu C, Malhotra A, Ling L. Phasic respiratory modulation of pharyngeal collapsibility via neuromuscular mechanisms in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2011; 112:695-703. [PMID: 22052868 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00136.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Obstructive sleep apnea patients experience recurrent upper airway (UA) collapse due to decreases in the UA dilator muscle activity during sleep. In contrast, activation of UA dilators reduces pharyngeal critical pressure (Pcrit, an index of pharyngeal collapsibility), suggesting an inverse relationship between pharyngeal collapsibility and dilator activity. Since most UA muscles display phasic respiratory activity, we hypothesized that pharyngeal collapsibility is modulated by respiratory drive via neuromuscular mechanisms. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized, vagotomized, and ventilated (normocapnia). In one group, integrated genioglossal activity, Pcrit, and maximal airflow (V(max)) were measured at three expiration and five inspiration time points within the breathing cycle. Pcrit was closely and inversely related to phasic genioglossal activity, with the value measured at peak inspiration being the lowest. In other groups, the variables were measured during expiration and peak inspiration, before and after each of five manipulations. Pcrit was 26% more negative (-15.0 ± 1.0 cmH(2)O, -18.9 ± 1.2 cmH(2)O; n = 23), V(max) was 7% larger (31.0 ± 1.0 ml/s, 33.2 ± 1.1 ml/s), nasal resistance was 12% bigger [0.49 ± 0.05 cmH(2)O/(ml/s), 0.59 ± 0.05 cmH(2)O/(ml/s)], and latency to induced UA closure was 14% longer (55 ± 4 ms, 63 ± 5 ms) during peak inspiration vs. expiration (all P < 0.005). The expiration-inspiration difference in Pcrit was abolished with neuromuscular blockade, hypocapnic apnea, or death but was not reduced by the superior laryngeal nerve transection or altered by tracheal displacement. Collectively, these results suggest that pharyngeal collapsibility is moment-by-moment modulated by respiratory drive and this phasic modulation requires neuromuscular mechanisms, but not the UA negative pressure reflex or tracheal displacement by phasic lung inflation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Cao
- Division of Sleep Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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10
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Polotsky M, Elsayed-Ahmed AS, Pichard L, Richardson RA, Smith PL, Schneider H, Kirkness JP, Polotsky V, Schwartz AR. Effect of age and weight on upper airway function in a mouse model. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2011; 111:696-703. [PMID: 21719728 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00123.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Defects in pharyngeal mechanical and neuromuscular control are required for the development of obstructive sleep apnea. Obesity and age are known sleep apnea risk factors, leading us to hypothesize that specific defects in upper airway neuromechanical control are associated with weight and age in a mouse model. In anesthetized, spontaneously breathing young and old wild-type C57BL/6J mice, genioglossus electromyographic activity (EMG(GG)) was monitored and upper airway pressure-flow dynamics were characterized during ramp decreases in nasal pressure (Pn, cmH₂O). Specific body weights were targeted by controlling caloric intake. The passive critical pressure (Pcrit) was derived from pressure-flow relationships during expiration. The Pn threshold at which inspiratory flow limitation (IFL) developed and tonic and phasic EMG(GG) activity during IFL were quantified to assess the phasic modulation of pharyngeal patency. The passive Pcrit increased progressively with increasing body weight and increased more in the old than young mice. Tonic EMG(GG) decreased and phasic EMG(GG) increased significantly with obesity. During ramp decreases in Pn, IFL developed at a higher (less negative) Pn threshold in the obese than lean mice, although the frequency of IFL decreased with age and weight. The findings suggest that weight imposes mechanical loads on the upper airway that are greater in the old than young mice. The susceptibility to upper airway obstruction increases with age and weight as tonic neuromuscular activity falls. IFL can elicit phasic responses in normal mice that mitigate or eliminate the obstruction altogether.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhael Polotsky
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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11
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Schwartz AR, Patil SP, Squier S, Schneider H, Kirkness JP, Smith PL. Obesity and upper airway control during sleep. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009; 108:430-5. [PMID: 19875707 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00919.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms linking obesity with upper airway dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea are reviewed. Obstructive sleep apnea is due to alterations in upper airway anatomy and neuromuscular control. Upper airway structural alterations in obesity are related to adipose deposition around the pharynx, which can increase its collapsibility or critical pressure (P(crit)). In addition, obesity and, particularly, central adiposity lead to reductions in resting lung volume, resulting in loss of caudal traction on upper airway structures and parallel increases in pharyngeal collapsibility. Metabolic and humoral factors that promote central adiposity may contribute to these alterations in upper airway mechanical function and increase sleep apnea susceptibility. In contrast, neural responses to upper airway obstruction can mitigate these mechanical loads and restore pharyngeal patency during sleep. Current evidence suggests that these responses can improve with weight loss. Improvements in these neural responses with weight loss may be related to a decline in systemic and local pharyngeal concentrations of specific inflammatory mediators with somnogenic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan R Schwartz
- Sleep Disorders Center, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA.
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12
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Lu JW, Kubin L. Electromyographic activity at the base and tip of the tongue across sleep-wake states in rats. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2009; 167:307-15. [PMID: 19539786 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2009.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2009] [Revised: 05/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) patients have elevated tonic and phasic inspiratory activity in the genioglossus and other upper airway muscles during wakefulness; this protects their upper airway from collapse. In this group, sleep-related decrements of upper airway motor tone result in sleep-related upper airway obstructions. We previously reported that in the rat, a species widely used to study the neural mechanisms of both sleep and breathing, lingual electromyographic activity (EMG) is minimal or absent during slow-wave sleep (SWS) and then gradually increases after the onset of rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) due to the appearance of large phasic bursts. Here, we investigated whether sleep-wake patterns and respiratory modulation of lingual EMG depend on the site of EMG recording within the tongue. In nine chronically instrumented rats, we recorded from 17 sites within the tongue and from the diaphragm across sleep-wake states. We quantified lingual EMG in successive 10s intervals of continuous 2h recordings (1-3 p.m.). We found that sleep-wake patterns of lingual EMG did not differ between the base and tip of the tongue, and that respiratory modulation was extremely rare regardless of the recording site. We also determined that the often rhythmic lingual bursts during REMS do not occur with respiratory rhythmicity. This pattern differs from that in OSA subjects who, unlike rats, have collapsible upper airway, exhibit prominent respiratory modulation of upper airway motor tone during quiet wakefulness, retain considerable tonic and inspiratory phasic activity during SWS, and show nadirs of activity during REMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackie W Lu
- Department of Animal Biology 209E/VET, School of Veterinary Medicine and Center for Sleep and Respiratory Neurobiology, University of Pennsylvania, 3800 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6046, USA
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