Rapid Dopaminergic Signaling by Interneurons That Contain Markers for Catecholamines and GABA in the Feeding Circuitry of Aplysia

The distribution and evolutionary dynamics of dopaminergic neurons in molluscs

Dopamine is one of the most versatile neurotransmitters in invertebrates. It's distribution and plethora of functions is likely coupled to feeding ecology, especially in Euthyneura (the largest clade of molluscs), which presents the broadest spectrum of environmental adaptations. Still, the analyses of dopamine-mediated signaling were dominated by studies of grazers. Here, we characterize the distribution of dopaminergic neurons in representatives of two distinct ecological groups: the sea angel - obligate predatory pelagic mollusc Clione limacina (Pteropoda, Gymnosomata) and its prey - the sea devil Limacina helicina (Pteropoda, Thecosomata) as well as the plankton eater Melibe leonina (Nudipleura, Nudibranchia). By using tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactivity (TH-ir) as a reporter, we showed that the dopaminergic system is moderately conservative among euthyneurans. Across all studied species, small numbers of dopaminergic neurons in the central ganglia contrast to significant diversification of TH-ir neurons in the peripheral nervous system, primarily representing sensory-like cells, which predominantly concentrated in the chemotactic areas and projecting afferent axons to the central nervous system. Combined with α-tubulin immunoreactivity, this study illuminates the unprecedented complexity of peripheral neural systems in gastropod molluscs, with lineage-specific diversification of sensory and modulatory functions.

Persistent modulatory actions and task switching in the feeding network of Aplysia

The activity of multifunctional networks is configured by neuromodulators that exert persistent effects. This raises a question, does this impact the ability of a network to switch from one type of activity to another? We review studies that have addressed this question in the Aplysia feeding circuit. Task switching in this system occurs "asymmetrically." When there is a switch from egestion to ingestion neuromodulation impedes switching (creates a "negative bias"). When there is a switch from ingestion to egestion the biasing is "positive." Ingestion promotes subsequent egestion. We contrast mechanisms responsible for the two types of biasing and show that the observed asymmetry is a consequence of the fact that there is more than one set of egestive circuit parameters.

Specific Plasticity Loci and Their Synergism Mediate Operant Conditioning

Despite numerous studies examining the mechanisms of operant conditioning (OC), the diversity of OC plasticity loci and their synergism have not been examined sufficiently. In the well-characterized feeding neural circuit of Aplysia, in vivo and in vitro appetitive OC increases neuronal excitability and electrical coupling among several neurons leading to an increase in expression of ingestive behavior. Here, we used the in vitro analog of OC to investigate whether OC reduces the excitability of a neuron, B4, whose inhibitory connections decrease expression of ingestive behavior. We found OC decreased the excitability of B4. This change appeared intrinsic to B4 because it could be replicated with an analog of OC in isolated cultures of B4 neurons. In addition to changes in B4 excitability, OC decreased the strength of B4's inhibitory connection to a key decision-making neuron, B51. The OC-induced changes were specific without affecting the excitability of another neuron critical for feeding behavior, B8, or the B4-to-B8 inhibitory connection. A conductance-based circuit model indicated that reducing the B4-to-B51 synapse, or increasing B51 excitability, mediated the OC phenotype more effectively than did decreasing B4 excitability. We combined these modifications to examine whether they could act synergistically. Combinations including B51 synergistically enhanced feeding. Taken together, these results suggest modifications of diverse loci work synergistically to mediate OC and that some neurons are well suited to work synergistically with plasticity in other loci.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The ways in which synergism of diverse plasticity loci mediate the change in motor patterns in operant conditioning (OC) are poorly understood. Here, we found that OC was in part mediated by decreasing the intrinsic excitability of a critical neuron of Aplysia feeding behavior, and specifically reducing the strength of one of its inhibitory connections that targets a key decision-making neuron. A conductance-based computational model indicated that the known plasticity loci showed a surprising level of synergism to mediate the behavioral changes associated with OC. These results highlight the importance of understanding the diversity, specificity and synergy among different types of plasticity that encode memory. Also, because OC in Aplysia is mediated by dopamine (DA), the present study provides insights into specific and synergistic mechanisms of DA-mediated reinforcement of behaviors.

Dopamine as a Multifunctional Neurotransmitter in Gastropod Molluscs: An Evolutionary Hypothesis

AbstractThe catecholamine 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine, or dopamine, acts as a neurotransmitter across a broad phylogenetic spectrum. Functions attributed to dopamine in the mammalian brain include regulation of motor circuits, valuation of sensory stimuli, and mediation of reward or reinforcement signals. Considerable evidence also supports a neurotransmitter role for dopamine in gastropod molluscs, and there is growing appreciation for its potential common functions across phylogeny. This article reviews evidence for dopamine's transmitter role in the nervous systems of gastropods. The functional properties of identified dopaminergic neurons in well-characterized neural circuits suggest a hypothetical incremental sequence by which dopamine accumulated its diverse roles. The successive acquisition of dopamine functions is proposed in the context of gastropod feeding behavior: (1) sensation of potential nutrients, (2) activation of motor circuits, (3) selection of motor patterns from multifunctional circuits, (4) valuation of sensory stimuli with reference to internal state, (5) association of motor programs with their outcomes, and (6) coincidence detection between sensory stimuli and their consequences. At each stage of this sequence, it is proposed that existing functions of dopaminergic neurons favored their recruitment to fulfill additional information processing demands. Common functions of dopamine in other intensively studied groups, ranging from mammals and insects to nematodes, suggest an ancient origin for this progression.

GABA signaling affects motor function in the honey bee

GABA is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in both vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems. In insects, inhibition plays important roles at the neuromuscular junction, in the regulation of central pattern generators, and in the modulation of information in higher brain processing centers. Additionally, increasing our understanding of the functions of GABA is important since GABA_A receptors are the targets of several classes of pesticides. To investigate the role of GABA in motor function, honey bee foragers were injected with GABA or with agonists or antagonists specific for either GABA_A or GABA_B receptors. Compounds that activated either type of GABA receptor decreased activity levels. Bees injected with the GABA_A receptor antagonist picrotoxin lost the ability to right themselves, whereas blockade of GABA_B receptors led to increases in grooming. Injection with antagonists of either GABA_A or GABA_B receptors resulted in an increase in extended wing behavior, during which bees kept their wings out at right angles to their body rather than folded along their back. These data suggest that the GABA receptor types play distinct roles in behavior and that GABA may affect behavior at several different levels.

GABA as a Neurotransmitter in Gastropod Molluscs

The neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is widely distributed in the mammalian central nervous system, where it acts as a major mediator of synaptic inhibition. GABA also serves as a neurotransmitter in a range of invertebrate phyla, including arthropods, echinoderms, annelids, nematodes, and platyhelminthes. This article reviews evidence supporting the neurotransmitter role of GABA in gastropod molluscs, with an emphasis on its presence in identified neurons and well-characterized neural circuits. The collective findings indicate that GABAergic signaling participates in the selection and specification of motor programs, as well as the bilateral coordination of motor circuits. While relatively few in number, GABAergic neurons can influence neural circuits via inhibitory, excitatory, and modulatory synaptic actions. GABA's colocalization with peptidergic and classical neurotransmitters can broaden its integrative capacity. The functional properties of GABAergic neurons in simpler gastropod systems may provide insight into the role of this neurotransmitter phenotype in more complex brains.

General Principles of Neuronal Co-transmission: Insights From Multiple Model Systems

It is now accepted that neurons contain and release multiple transmitter substances. However, we still have only limited insight into the regulation and functional effects of this co-transmission. Given that there are 200 or more neurotransmitters, the chemical complexity of the nervous system is daunting. This is made more-so by the fact that their interacting effects can generate diverse non-linear and novel consequences. The relatively poor history of pharmacological approaches likely reflects the fact that manipulating a transmitter system will not necessarily mimic its roles within the normal chemical environment of the nervous system (e.g., when it acts in parallel with co-transmitters). In this article, co-transmission is discussed in a range of systems [from invertebrate and lower vertebrate models, up to the mammalian peripheral and central nervous system (CNS)] to highlight approaches used, degree of understanding, and open questions and future directions. Finally, we offer some outlines of what we consider to be the general principles of co-transmission, as well as what we think are the most pressing general aspects that need to be addressed to move forward in our understanding of co-transmission.

A role for dopamine in the peripheral sensory processing of a gastropod mollusc

Histological evidence points to the presence of dopamine (DA) in the cephalic sensory organs of multiple gastropod molluscs, suggesting a possible sensory role for the neurotransmitter. We investigated the sensory function of DA in the nudipleuran Pleurobranchaea californica, in which the central neural correlates of sensation and foraging behavior have been well characterized. Tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactivity (THli), a signature of the dopamine synthetic pathway, was similar to that found in two other opisthobranchs and two pulmonates previously studied: 1) relatively few (<100) THli neuronal somata were observed in the central ganglia, with those observed found in locations similar to those documented in the other snails but varying in number, and 2) the vast majority of THli somata were located in the peripheral nervous system, were associated with ciliated, putative primary sensory cells, and were highly concentrated in chemotactile sensory organs, giving rise to afferent axons projecting to the central nervous system. We extended these findings by observing that applying a selective D2/D3 receptor antagonist to the chemo- and mechanosensory oral veil-tentacle complex of behaving animals significantly delayed feeding behavior in response to an appetitive stimulus. A D1 blocker had no effect. Recordings of the two major cephalic sensory nerves, the tentacle and large oral veil nerves, in a deganglionated head preparation revealed a decrease of stimulus-evoked activity in the former nerve following application of the same D2/D3 antagonist. Broadly, our results implicate DA in sensation and engender speculation regarding the foraging-based decisions the neurotransmitter may serve in the nervous system of Pleurobranchaea and, by extension, other gastropods.

GABA-like immunoreactivity in Biomphalaria: Colocalization with tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactivity in the feeding motor systems of panpulmonate snails

The simpler nervous systems of certain invertebrates provide opportunities to examine colocalized classical neurotransmitters in the context of identified neurons and well defined neural circuits. This study examined the distribution of γ-aminobutyric acid-like immunoreactivity (GABAli) in the nervous system of the panpulmonates Biomphalaria glabrata and Biomphalaria alexandrina, major intermediate hosts for intestinal schistosomiasis. GABAli neurons were localized in the cerebral, pedal, and buccal ganglia of each species. With the exception of a projection to the base of the tentacle, GABAli fibers were confined to the CNS. As GABAli was previously reported to be colocalized with markers for dopamine (DA) in five neurons in the feeding network of the euopisthobranch gastropod Aplysia californica (Díaz-Ríos, Oyola, & Miller, 2002), double-labeling protocols were used to compare the distribution of GABAli with tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity (THli). As in Aplysia, GABAli-THli colocalization was limited to five neurons, all of which were located in the buccal ganglion. Five GABAli-THli cells were also observed in the buccal ganglia of two other intensively studied panpulmonate species, Lymnaea stagnalis and Helisoma trivolvis. These findings indicate that colocalization of the classical neurotransmitters GABA and DA in feeding central pattern generator (CPG) interneurons preceded the divergence of euopisthobranch and panpulmonate taxa. These observations also support the hypothesis that heterogastropod feeding CPG networks exhibit a common universal design.

Unique Configurations of Compression and Truncation of Neuronal Activity Underlie l-DOPA-Induced Selection of Motor Patterns in Aplysia

A key issue in neuroscience is understanding the ways in which neuromodulators such as dopamine modify neuronal activity to mediate selection of distinct motor patterns. We addressed this issue by applying either low or high concentrations of l-DOPA (40 or 250 μM) and then monitoring activity of up to 130 neurons simultaneously in the feeding circuitry of Aplysia using a voltage-sensitive dye (RH-155). l-DOPA selected one of two distinct buccal motor patterns (BMPs): intermediate (low l-DOPA) or bite (high l-DOPA) patterns. The selection of intermediate BMPs was associated with shortening of the second phase of the BMP (retraction), whereas the selection of bite BMPs was associated with shortening of both phases of the BMP (protraction and retraction). Selection of intermediate BMPs was also associated with truncation of individual neuron spike activity (decreased burst duration but no change in spike frequency or burst latency) in neurons active during retraction. In contrast, selection of bite BMPs was associated with compression of spike activity (decreased burst latency and duration and increased spike frequency) in neurons projecting through specific nerves, as well as increased spike frequency of protraction neurons. Finally, large-scale voltage-sensitive dye recordings delineated the spatial distribution of neurons active during BMPs and the modification of that distribution by the two concentrations of l-DOPA.

Repetition priming of motor activity mediated by a central pattern generator: the importance of extrinsic vs. intrinsic program initiators

Repetition priming is characterized by increased performance as a behavior is repeated. Although this phenomenon is ubiquitous, mediating mechanisms are poorly understood. We address this issue in a model system, the feeding network of Aplysia This network generates both ingestive and egestive motor programs. Previous data suggest a chemical coding model: ingestive and egestive inputs to the feeding central pattern generator (CPG) release different modulators, which act via different second messengers to prime motor activity in different ways. The ingestive input to the CPG (neuron CBI-2) releases the peptides feeding circuit activating peptide and cerebral peptide 2, which produce an ingestive pattern of activity. The egestive input to the CPG (the esophageal nerve) releases the peptide small cardioactive peptide. This model is based on research that focused on a single aspect of motor control (radula opening). Here we ask whether repetition priming is observed if activity is triggered with a neuron within the core CPG itself and demonstrate that it is not. Moreover, previous studies demonstrated that effects of modulatory neurotransmitters that induce repetition priming persist. This suggests that it should be possible to "prime" motor programs triggered from within the CPG by first stimulating extrinsic modulatory inputs. We demonstrate that programs triggered after ingestive input activation are ingestive and programs triggered after egestive input activation are egestive. We ask where this priming occurs and demonstrate modifications within the CPG itself. This arrangement is likely to have important consequences for "task" switching, i.e., the cessation of one type of motor activity and the initiation of another.

A proposed resolution to the paradox of drug reward: Dopamine's evolution from an aversive signal to a facilitator of drug reward via negative reinforcement

The mystery surrounding how plant neurotoxins came to possess reinforcing properties is termed the paradox of drug reward. Here we propose a resolution to this paradox whereby dopamine - which has traditionally been viewed as a signal of reward - initially signaled aversion and encouraged escape. We suggest that after being consumed, plant neurotoxins such as nicotine activated an aversive dopaminergic pathway, thereby deterring predatory herbivores. Later evolutionary events - including the development of a GABAergic system capable of modulating dopaminergic activity - led to the ability to down-regulate and 'control' this dopamine-based aversion. We speculate that this negative reinforcement system evolved so that animals could suppress aversive states such as hunger in order to attend to other internal drives (such as mating and shelter) that would result in improved organismal fitness.

Deep mRNA sequencing of the Tritonia diomedea brain transcriptome provides access to gene homologues for neuronal excitability, synaptic transmission and peptidergic signalling

BACKGROUND

The sea slug Tritonia diomedea (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Nudibranchia), has a simple and highly accessible nervous system, making it useful for studying neuronal and synaptic mechanisms underlying behavior. Although many important contributions have been made using Tritonia, until now, a lack of genetic information has impeded exploration at the molecular level.

RESULTS

We performed Illumina sequencing of central nervous system mRNAs from Tritonia, generating 133.1 million 100 base pair, paired-end reads. De novo reconstruction of the RNA-Seq data yielded a total of 185,546 contigs, which partitioned into 123,154 non-redundant gene clusters (unigenes). BLAST comparison with RefSeq and Swiss-Prot protein databases, as well as mRNA data from other invertebrates (gastropod molluscs: Aplysia californica, Lymnaea stagnalis and Biomphalaria glabrata; cnidarian: Nematostella vectensis) revealed that up to 76,292 unigenes in the Tritonia transcriptome have putative homologues in other databases, 18,246 of which are below a more stringent E-value cut-off of 1x10-6. In silico prediction of secreted proteins from the Tritonia transcriptome shotgun assembly (TSA) produced a database of 579 unique sequences of secreted proteins, which also exhibited markedly higher expression levels compared to other genes in the TSA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our efforts greatly expand the availability of gene sequences available for Tritonia diomedea. We were able to extract full length protein sequences for most queried genes, including those involved in electrical excitability, synaptic vesicle release and neurotransmission, thus confirming that the transcriptome will serve as a useful tool for probing the molecular correlates of behavior in this species. We also generated a neurosecretome database that will serve as a useful tool for probing peptidergic signalling systems in the Tritonia brain.

Comparative mapping of GABA-immunoreactive neurons in the central nervous systems of nudibranch molluscs

The relative simplicity of certain invertebrate nervous systems, such as those of gastropod molluscs, allows behaviors to be dissected at the level of small neural circuits composed of individually identifiable neurons. Elucidating the neurotransmitter phenotype of neurons in neural circuits is important for understanding how those neural circuits function. In this study, we examined the distribution of γ-aminobutyric-acid;-immunoreactive (GABA-ir) neurons in four species of sea slugs (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia, Nudibranchia): Tritonia diomedea, Melibe leonina, Dendronotus iris, and Hermissenda crassicornis. We found consistent patterns of GABA immunoreactivity in the pedal and cerebral-pleural ganglia across species. In particular, there were bilateral clusters in the lateral and medial regions of the dorsal surface of the cerebral ganglia as well as a cluster on the ventral surface of the pedal ganglia. There were also individual GABA-ir neurons that were recognizable across species. The invariant presence of these individual neurons and clusters suggests that they are homologous, although there were interspecies differences in the numbers of neurons in the clusters. The GABAergic system was largely restricted to the central nervous system, with the majority of axons confined to ganglionic connectives and commissures, suggesting a central, integrative role for GABA. GABA was a candidate inhibitory neurotransmitter for neurons in central pattern generator (CPG) circuits underlying swimming behaviors in these species, however none of the known swim CPG neurons were GABA-ir. Although the functions of these GABA-ir neurons are not known, it is clear that their presence has been strongly conserved across nudibranchs.

Localization of tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactivity in the nervous systems of Biomphalaria glabrata and Biomphalaria alexandrina, intermediate hosts for schistosomiasis

Planorbid snails of the genus Biomphalaria are major intermediate hosts for the digenetic trematode parasite Schistosoma mansoni. Evidence suggests that levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) are reduced during the course of S. mansoni multiplication and transformation within the snail. This investigation used immunohistochemical methods to localize tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of catecholamines, in the nervous system of Biomphalaria. The two species examined, Biomphalaria glabrata and Biomphalaria alexandrina, are the major intermediate hosts for S. mansoni in sub-Saharan Africa, where more than 90% of global cases of human intestinal schistosomiasis occur. TH-like immunoreactive (THli) neurons were distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS) and labeled fibers were present in all commissures, connectives, and nerves. Some asymmetries were observed, including a large distinctive neuron (LPeD1) in the pedal ganglion described previously in several pulmonates. The majority of TH-like immunoreactive neurons were detected in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), especially in lip and foot regions of the anterior integument. Independent observations supporting the dopaminergic phenotype of THli neurons included 1) block of LPeD1 synaptic signaling by the D2/3 antagonist sulpiride, and 2) the similar localization of aqueous aldehyde (FaGlu)-induced fluorescence. The distribution of THli neurons indicates that, as in other gastropods, dopamine functions as a sensory neurotransmitter and in the regulation of feeding and reproductive behaviors in Biomphalaria. It is hypothesized that infection could stimulate transmitter release from dopaminergic sensory neurons and that dopaminergic signaling could contribute to modifications of both host and parasite behavior.

PKC-mediated GABAergic enhancement of dopaminergic responses: implication for short-term potentiation at a dual-transmitter synapse

Transmitter-mediated homosynaptic potentiation is generally implemented by the same transmitter that mediates the excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs), e.g., glutamate. When a presynaptic neuron contains more than one transmitter, however, potentiation can in principle be implemented by a transmitter different from that which elicits the EPSPs. Neuron B20 in Aplysia contains both dopamine and GABA. Although only dopamine acts as the fast excitatory transmitter at the B20-to-B8 synapse, GABA increases the size of these dopaminergic EPSPs. We now provide evidence that repeated stimulation of B20 potentiates B20-evoked dopaminergic EPSPs in B8 apparently via a postsynaptic mechanism, and short-term potentiation of this synapse is critical for the establishment and maintenance of an egestive network state. We show that GABA can act postsynaptically to increase dopamine currents that are elicited by direct applications of dopamine to B8 and that dopamine is acting on a 5-HT3-like receptor. This potentiation is mediated by GABAB-like receptors as GABAB-receptor agonists and antagonists, respectively, mimicked and blocked the potentiating actions of GABA. The postsynaptic actions of GABA rely on a G protein-mediated activation of PKC. Our results suggest that the postsynaptic action of cotransmitter-mediated potentiation may contribute to the maintenance of the egestive state of Aplysia feeding network and, in more general terms, may participate in the plasticity of networks that mediate complex behaviors.

Latent modulation: a basis for non-disruptive promotion of two incompatible behaviors by a single network state

Behavioral states often preferentially enhance specific classes of behavior and suppress incompatible behaviors. In the nervous system, this may involve upregulation of the efficacy of neural modules that mediate responses to one stimulus and suppression of modules that generate antagonistic or incompatible responses to another stimulus. In Aplysia, prestimulation of egestive inputs [esophageal nerve (EN)] facilitates subsequent EN-elicited egestive responses and weakens ingestive responses to ingestive inputs [Cerebral-Buccal Interneuron (CBI-2)]. However, a single state can also promote incompatible behaviors in response to different stimuli. This is the case in Aplysia, where prestimulation of CBI-2 inputs not only enhances subsequent CBI-2-elicited ingestive responses, but also strengthens EN-elicited egestive responses. We used the modularly organized feeding network of Aplysia to characterize the organizational principles that allow a single network state to promote two opposing behaviors, ingestion and egestion, without the two interfering with each other. We found that the CBI-2 prestimulation-induced state upregulates the excitability of neuron B65 which, as a member of the egestive module, increases the strength of egestive responses. Furthermore, we found that this upregulation is likely mediated by the actions of the neuropeptides FCAP (Feeding Circuit Activating Peptide) and CP2 (Cerebral Peptide 2). This increased excitability is mediated by a form of modulation that we refer to as "latent modulation" because it is established during stimulation of CBI-2, which does not activate B65. However, when B65 is recruited into EN-elicited egestive responses, the effects of the latent modulation are expressed as a higher B65 firing rate and a resultant strengthening of the egestive response.

Release of a single neurotransmitter from an identified interneuron coherently affects motor output on multiple time scales

Neurotransmitters can have diverse effects that occur over multiple time scales often making the consequences of neurotransmission difficult to predict. To explore the consequences of this diversity, we used the buccal ganglion of Aplysia to examine the effects of GABA release by a single interneuron, B40, on the intrinsic properties and motor output of the radula closure neuron B8. B40 induces a picrotoxin-sensitive fast IPSP lasting milliseconds in B8 and a slow EPSP lasting seconds. We found that the excitatory effects of this slow EPSP are also mediated by GABA. Together, these two GABAergic actions structure B8 firing in a pattern characteristic of ingestive programs. Furthermore, we found that repeated B40 stimulation induces a persistent increase in B8 excitability that was occluded in the presence of the GABA B receptor agonist baclofen, suggesting that GABA affects B8 excitability over multiple time scales. The phasing of B8 activity during the feeding motor programs determines the nature of the behavior elicited during that motor program. The persistent increase in B8 excitability induced by B40 biased the activity of B8 during feeding motor programs causing the motor programs to become more ingestive in nature. Thus, a single transmitter released from a single interneuron can have consequences for motor output that are expressed over multiple time scales. Importantly, despite the differences in their signs and temporal characteristics, the three actions of B40 are coherent in that they promote B8 firing patterns that are characteristic of ingestive motor outputs.

Metabotropic γ-aminobutyric acid (GABAB) receptors modulate feeding behavior in the calcisponge Leucandra aspera

Here, we report the presence of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic system in the calcisponge Leucandra aspera and examine the cellular localization of the components of this system, including GABA-like receptors using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. Furthermore, we demonstrate for the first time that GABA plays a functional role as a messenger in regulating sponge-feeding behavior. We found that both GABA(B) R1 and R2 subunits are present in the choanocytes of sponges as well as in the eso- and endopinacocytes. The functional role of GABA in the feeding behavior of this sponge was tested. The involvement of GABA receptors in the endocytic processes in L. aspera was demonstrated with dextran conjugated to Texas Red as a marker for material ingestion and by treating isolated sponge cells with a GABA(B) receptor agonist and an antagonist. The amount of dextran that was ingested increased in dissociated sponge cells when the GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen was used, and this stimulatory effect was prevented by treatment with the GABA(B) receptor antagonist phaclofen. The baclofen effect on uptake was blocked by treatment with pertussis toxin, thus indicating a role for G proteins in modulating feeding behavior in L. aspera. Moreover, we found evidence that GABA receptors are involved in the consumption of dissolved organic matter by sponge cells. These findings suggest that GABA receptors and their functional role are highly conservative traits in the animal kingdom prenervous system evolution.

Dopamine and gamma-aminobutyric acid are colocalized in restricted groups of neurons in the sea lamprey brain: insights into the early evolution of neurotransmitter colocalization in vertebrates

Since its discovery, the possible corelease of classic neurotransmitters from neurons has received much attention. Colocalization of monoamines and amino acidergic neurotransmitters [mainly glutamate and dopamine (DA) or serotonin] in mammalian neurons has been reported. However, few studies have dealt with the colocalization of DA and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in neurons. With the aim of providing some insight into the colocalization of neurotransmitters during early vertebrate phylogeny, we studied GABA expression in dopaminergic neurons in the sea lamprey brain by using double-immunofluorescence methods with anti-DA and anti-GABA antibodies. Different degrees of colocalization of DA and GABA were observed in different dopaminergic brain nuclei. A high degree of colocalization (GABA in at least 25% of DA-immunoreactive neurons) was observed in populations of the caudal rhombencephalon, ventral isthmus, postoptic commissure nucleus, preoptic nucleus and in granule-like cells of the olfactory bulb. A new DA-immunoreactive striatal population that showed colocalization with GABA in about a quarter of its neurons was observed. In the periventricular hypothalamus, colocalization was observed in only a few cells, despite the abundance of DA- and GABA-immunoreactive neurons, and no double-labelled cells were observed in the paratubercular nucleus. The frequent colocalization of DA and GABA reveals that the dopaminergic populations of lampreys are more complex than previously reported. Double-labelled fibres or terminals were observed in different brain regions, suggesting possible corelease of DA and GABA by these lamprey neurons. The present results suggest that colocalization of DA and GABA in neurons appeared early in vertebrate evolution.

Localization of biogenic amines in the foregut of Aplysia californica: catecholaminergic and serotonergic innervation

This study examined the catecholaminergic and serotonergic innervation of the foregut of Aplysia californica, a model system in which the control of feeding behaviors can be investigated at the cellular level. Similar numbers (15-25) of serotonin-like-immunoreactive (5HTli) and tyrosine hydroxylase-like-immunoreactive (THli) fibers were present in each (bilateral) esophageal nerve (En), the major source of pregastric neural innervation in this system. The majority of En 5HTli and THli fibers originated from the anterior branch (En(2)), which innervates the pharynx and the anterior esophagus. Fewer fibers were present in the posterior branch (En(1)), which innervates the majority of the esophagus and the crop. Backfills of the two En branches toward the central nervous system (CNS) labeled a single, centrifugally projecting serotonergic fiber, originating from the metacerebral cell (MCC). The MCC fiber projected only to En(2). No central THli neurons were found to project to the En. Surveys of the pharynx and esophagus revealed major differences between their patterns of catecholaminergic (CA) and serotonergic innervation. Whereas THli fibers and cell bodies were distributed throughout the foregut, 5HTli fibers were present in restricted plexi, and no 5HTli somata were detected. Double-labeling experiments in the periphery revealed THli neurons projecting toward the buccal ganglion via En(2). Other afferents received dense perisomatic serotonergic innervation. Finally, qualitative and quantitative differences were observed between the buccal motor programs (BMPs) produced by stimulation of the two En branches. These observations increase our understanding of aminergic contributions to the pregastric regulation of Aplysia feeding behaviors.

Training with inedible food in Aplysia causes expression of C/EBP in the buccal but not cerebral ganglion

Training with inedible food in Aplysia increased expression of the transcription factor C/EBP in the buccal ganglia, which primarily have a motor function, but not in the cerebral or pleural ganglia. C/EBP mRNA increased immediately after training, as well as 1-2 h later. The increased expression of C/EBP protein lagged the increase in mRNA. Stimulating the lips and inducing feeding responses do not lead to long-term memory and did not cause increased C/EBP expression. Blocking polyADP-ribosylation, a process necessary for long-term memory after training, did not affect the increased C/EBP mRNA expression in the buccal ganglia.

Co-transmission of dopamine and GABA in periglomerular cells

Most central neurons package and release a single transmitter. However co-transmission of fast-acting and modulatory transmitters has been observed in vertebrate and invertebrate systems. Here we describe a population of periglomerular cells in mouse brain slices (PND14-21) that co-release dopamine and GABA. We made whole cell recordings from periglomerular cells that expressed enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) under the control of the tyrosine hyrdoxylase (TH) promoter. Immunolabeling confirmed that EGFP+ periglomerular cells synthesized TH as well as glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD). Stimulation of olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) afferent input evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in EGFP+ cells that were inhibited by cocaine, which blocks dopamine transport. These effects were reversed by the D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride. Cocaine also increased the paired-pulse ratio of ORN-evoked EPSCs. These results demonstrate that TH+ periglomerular cells spontaneously release dopamine. In addition to dopamine, TH-EGFP+ cells also released GABA. Brief depolarizing voltage steps in labeled cells evoked a tail current that was completely blocked by the GABA(A) receptor antagonist gabazine and by cadmium, indicative of calcium-dependent self-inhibition in periglomerular cells. However, similar voltage steps were insufficient to cause D2-receptor mediated inhibition of ORN terminals. Our results indicate that TH+ periglomerular cells are directly activated by ORN input and release both dopamine and GABA. We suggest that concerted activation of multiple periglomerular cells may be required to detect dopamine release under normal physiological conditions.

Currents contributing to decision making in neurons B31/B32 of Aplysia

Biophysical properties of neurons contributing to the ability of an animal to decide whether or not to respond were examined. B31/B32, two pairs of bilaterally symmetrical Aplysia neurons, are major participants in deciding to initiate a buccal motor program, the neural correlate of a consummatory feeding response. B31/B32 respond to an adequate stimulus after a delay, during which time additional stimuli influence the decision to respond. B31/B32 then respond with a ramp depolarization followed by a sustained soma depolarization and axon spiking that is the expression of a commitment to respond to food. Four currents contributing to decision making in B31/B32 were characterized, and their functional effects were determined, in current- and voltage-clamp experiments and with simulations. Inward currents arising from slow muscarinic transmission were characterized. These currents contribute to the B31/B32 depolarization. Their slow activation kinetics contribute to the delay preceding B31/B32 activity. After the delay, inward currents affect B31/B32 in the context of two endogenous inactivating outward currents: a delayed rectifier K+ current (I(K-V)) and an A-type K+ current (I(K-A)), as well as a high-threshold noninactivating outward current (I(maintained)). Hodgkin-Huxley kinetic analyses were performed on the outward currents. Simulations using equations from these analyses showed that I(K-V) and I(K-A) slow the ramp depolarization preceding the sustained depolarization. The three outward currents contribute to braking the B31/B32 depolarization and keeping the sustained depolarization at a constant voltage. The currents identified are sufficient to explain the properties of B31/B32 that play a role in generating the decision to feed.

Endogenous motor neuron properties contribute to a program-specific phase of activity in the multifunctional feeding central pattern generator of Aplysia

Multifunctional central pattern generators (CPGs) are circuits of neurons that can generate manifold actions from a single effector system. This study examined a bilateral pair of pharyngeal motor neurons, designated B67, that participate in the multifunctional feeding network of Aplysia californica. Fictive buccal motor programs (BMPs) were elicited with four distinct stimulus paradigms to assess the activity of B67 during ingestive versus egestive patterns. In both classes of programs, B67 fired during the phase of radula protraction and received a potent inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) during fictive radula retraction. When programs were ingestive, the retraction phase IPSP exhibited a depolarizing sag and was followed by a postinhibitory rebound (PIR) that could generate a postretraction phase of impulse activity. When programs were egestive, the depolarizing sag potential and PIR were both diminished or were not present. Examination of the membrane properties of B67 disclosed a cesium-sensitive depolarizing sag, a corresponding I(h)-like current, and PIR in its responses to hyperpolarizing pulses. Direct IPSPs originating from the influential CPG retraction phase interneuron B64 were also found to activate the sag potential and PIR of B67. Dopamine, a modulator that can promote ingestive behavior in this system, enhanced the sag potential, I(h)-like current, and PIR of B67. Finally, a pharyngeal muscle contraction followed the radula retraction phase of ingestive, but not egestive motor patterns. It is proposed that regulation of the intrinsic properties of this motor neuron can contribute to generating a program-specific phase of motor activity.

Multiple contributions of an input-representing neuron to the dynamics of the aplysia feeding network

In Aplysia, mutually antagonistic ingestive and egestive behaviors are produced by the same multifunctional central pattern generator (CPG) circuit. Interestingly, higher-order inputs that activate the CPG do not directly specify whether the resulting motor program is ingestive or egestive because the slow dynamics of the network intervene. One input, the commandlike cerebral-buccal interneuron 2 (CBI-2), slowly drives the motor output toward ingestion, whereas another input, the esophageal nerve (EN), drives the motor output toward egestion. When the input is switched from EN to CBI-2, the motor output does not switch immediately and remains egestive. Here, we investigated how these slow dynamics are implemented on the interneuronal level. We found that activity of two CPG interneurons, B20 and B40, tracked the motor output regardless of the input, whereas activity of another CPG interneuron, B65, tracked the input regardless of the motor output. Furthermore, we show that the slow dynamics of the network are implemented, at least in part, in the slow dynamics of the interaction between the input-representing and the output-representing neurons. We conclude that 1) a population of CPG interneurons, recruited during a particular motor program, simultaneously encodes both the input that is used to elicit the motor program and the output elicited by this input; and 2) activity of the input-representing neurons may serve to bias the future motor programs.

Target-specific regulation of synaptic efficacy in the feeding central pattern generator of Aplysia: potential substrates for behavioral plasticity?

The contributions to this symposium are unified by their focus on the role of synaptic plasticity in sensorimotor learning. Synaptic plasticities are also known to operate within the central pattern generator (CPG) circuits that produce repetitive motor programs, where their relation to adaptive behavior is less well understood. This study examined divergent synaptic plasticity in the signaling of an influential interneuron, B20, located within the CPG that controls consummatory feeding-related behaviors in Aplysia. Previously, B20 was shown to contain markers for catecholamines and GABA (Díaz-Ríos et al., 2002), and its rapid synaptic signaling to two follower motor neurons, B16 and B8, was found to be mediated by dopamine (Díaz-Ríos and Miller, 2005). In this investigation, two incremental forms of increased synaptic efficacy, facilitation and summation, were both greater in the signaling from B20 to B8 than in the signaling from B20 to B16. Manipulation of the membrane potentials of the two postsynaptic motor neurons did not affect facilitation of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) to either follower cell. Striking levels of summation in B8, however, were eliminated at hyperpolarized membrane potentials and could be attributed to distinctive membrane properties of this postsynaptic cell. GABA and the GABAB agonist baclofen increased facilitation and summation of EPSPs from B20 to B8, but not to B16. The enhanced facilitation was not affected when the membrane potential of B8 was pre-set to hyperpolarized levels, but GABAergic effects on summation were eliminated by this manipulation. These observations demonstrate a target-specific amplification of synaptic efficacy that can contribute to channeling the flow of divergent information from an intrinsic interneuron within the buccal CPG. They further suggest that GABA, acting as a cotransmitter in B20, could induce coordinated and target-specific pre- and postsynaptic modulation of these signals. Finally, we speculate that target-specific plasticity and its modulation could be efficient, specific, and flexible substrates for learning-related modifications of CPG function.

Conditional rhythmicity and synchrony in a bilateral pair of bursting motor neurons in Aplysia

This investigation examined the activity of a bilateral pair of motor neurons (B67) in the feeding system of Aplysia californica. In isolated ganglia, B67 firing exhibited a highly stereotyped bursting pattern that could be attributed to an underlying TTX-resistant driver potential (DP). Under control conditions, this bursting in the two B67 neurons was infrequent, irregular, and asynchronous. However, bath application of the neuromodulator dopamine (DA) increased the duration, frequency, rhythmicity, and synchrony of B67 bursts. In the absence of DA, depolarization of B67 with injected current produced rhythmic bursting. Such depolarization-induced rhythmic burst activity in one B67, however, did not entrain its contralateral counterpart. Moreover, when both B67s were depolarized to potentials that produced rhythmic bursting, their synchrony was significantly lower than that produced by DA. In TTX, dopamine increased the DP duration, enhanced the amplitude of slow signaling between the two B67s, and increased DP synchrony. A potential source of dopaminergic signaling to B67 was identified as B65, an influential interneuron with bilateral buccal projections. Firing B65 produced bursts in the ipsilateral and contralateral B67s. Under conditions that attenuated polysynaptic activity, firing B65 evoked rapid excitatory postsynaptic potentials in B67 that were blocked by sulpiride, an antagonist of synaptic DA receptors in this system. Finally, firing a single B65 was capable of producing a prolonged period of rhythmic synchronous bursting of the paired B67s. It is proposed that modulatory dopaminergic signaling originating from B65 during consummatory behaviors can promote rhythmicity and bilateral synchrony in the paired B67 motor neurons.

Reinforcement in an in vitro analog of appetitive classical conditioning of feeding behavior in Aplysia: blockade by a dopamine antagonist

In a recently developed in vitro analog of appetitive classical conditioning of feeding in Aplysia, the unconditioned stimulus (US) was electrical stimulation of the esophageal nerve (En). This nerve is rich in dopamine (DA)-containing processes, which suggests that DA mediates reinforcement during appetitive conditioning. To test this possibility, methylergonovine was used to antagonize DA receptors. Methylergonovine (1 nM) blocked the pairing-specific increase in fictive feeding that is usually induced by in vitro classical conditioning. The present results and previous observation that methylergonovine also blocks the effects of contingent reinforcement in an in vitro analog of appetitive operant conditioning suggest that DA mediates reinforcement for appetitive associative conditioning of feeding in Aplysia.