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Williams SR, Zhou X, Fletcher LN. Compartment-specific dendritic information processing in striatal cholinergic interneurons is reconfigured by peptide neuromodulation. Neuron 2023; 111:1933-1951.e3. [PMID: 37086722 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/24/2023]
Abstract
Cholinergic interneurons are central hubs of the striatal neuronal network, controlling information processing in a behavioral-state-dependent manner. It remains unknown, however, how such state transitions influence the integrative properties of these neurons. To address this, we made simultaneous somato-dendritic recordings from identified rodent cholinergic interneurons, revealing that action potentials are initiated at dendritic sites because of a dendritic axonal origin. Functionally, this anatomical arrangement ensured that the action potential initiation threshold was lowest at axon-bearing dendritic sites, a privilege efficacy powerfully accentuated at the hyperpolarized membrane potentials achieved in cholinergic interneurons following salient behavioral stimuli. Experimental analysis revealed the voltage-dependent attenuation of the efficacy of non-axon-bearing dendritic excitatory input was mediated by the recruitment of dendritic potassium channels, a regulatory mechanism that, in turn, was controlled by the pharmacological activation of neurokinin receptors. Together, these results indicate that the neuropeptide microenvironment dynamically controls state- and compartment-dependent dendritic information processing in striatal cholinergic interneurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R Williams
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Xiangyu Zhou
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lee Norman Fletcher
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Zhang Y, Wang H, Sun Y, Huang Z, Tao Y, Wang Y, Jiang X, Tao J. Trace amine-associated receptor 1 regulation of Kv1.4 channels in trigeminal ganglion neurons contributes to nociceptive behaviors. J Headache Pain 2023; 24:49. [PMID: 37158881 PMCID: PMC10165857 DOI: 10.1186/s10194-023-01582-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trace amines, such as tyramine, are endogenous amino acid metabolites that have been hypothesized to promote headache. However, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain unknown. METHODS Using patch-clamp recording, immunostaining, molecular biological approaches and behaviour tests, we elucidated a critically functional role of tyramine in regulating membrane excitability and pain sensitivity by manipulating Kv1.4 channels in trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons. RESULTS Application of tyramine to TG neurons decreased the A-type K+ current (IA) in a manner dependent on trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). Either siRNA knockdown of Gαo or chemical inhibition of βγ subunit (Gβγ) signaling abrogated the response to tyramine. Antagonism of protein kinase C (PKC) prevented the tyramine-induced IA response, while inhibition of conventional PKC isoforms or protein kinase A elicited no such effect. Tyramine increased the membrane abundance of PKCθ in TG neurons, and either pharmacological or genetic inhibition of PKCθ blocked the TAAR1-mediated IA decrease. Furthermore, PKCθ-dependent IA suppression was mediated by Kv1.4 channels. Knockdown of Kv1.4 abrogated the TAAR1-induced IA decrease, neuronal hyperexcitability, and pain hypersensitivity. In a mouse model of migraine induced by electrical stimulation of the dura mater surrounding the superior sagittal sinus, blockade of TAAR1 signaling attenuated mechanical allodynia; this effect was occluded by lentiviral overexpression of Kv1.4 in TG neurons. CONCLUSION These results suggest that tyramine induces Kv1.4-mediated IA suppression through stimulation of TAAR1 coupled to the Gβγ-dependent PKCθ signaling cascade, thereby enhancing TG neuronal excitability and mechanical pain sensitivity. Insight into TAAR1 signaling in sensory neurons provides attractive targets for the treatment of headache disorders such as migraine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics & Clinical Research Center of Neurological Disease, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 1055 San-Xiang Road, Suzhou, 215004, P.R. China.
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology & Centre for Ion Channelopathy, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Ren-Ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China.
| | - Hua Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, P.R. China
| | - Yufang Sun
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology & Centre for Ion Channelopathy, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Ren-Ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China
| | - Zitong Huang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology & Centre for Ion Channelopathy, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Ren-Ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China
| | - Yu Tao
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology & Centre for Ion Channelopathy, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Ren-Ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China
| | - Yiru Wang
- Department of Geriatrics & Clinical Research Center of Neurological Disease, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 1055 San-Xiang Road, Suzhou, 215004, P.R. China
| | - Xinghong Jiang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology & Centre for Ion Channelopathy, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Ren-Ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China
| | - Jin Tao
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology & Centre for Ion Channelopathy, Medical College of Soochow University, 199 Ren-Ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China.
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Hypothalamic extended synaptotagmin-3 contributes to the development of dietary obesity and related metabolic disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:20149-20158. [PMID: 32747560 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2004392117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The C2 domain containing protein extended synaptotagmin (E-Syt) plays important roles in both lipid homeostasis and the intracellular signaling; however, its role in physiology remains largely unknown. Here, we show that hypothalamic E-Syt3 plays a critical role in diet-induced obesity (DIO). E-Syt3 is characteristically expressed in the hypothalamic nuclei. Whole-body or proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neuron-specific ablation of E-Syt3 ameliorated DIO and related comorbidities, including glucose intolerance and dyslipidemia. Conversely, overexpression of E-Syt3 in the arcuate nucleus moderately promoted food intake and impaired energy expenditure, leading to increased weight gain. Mechanistically, E-Syt3 ablation led to increased processing of POMC to α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), increased activities of protein kinase C and activator protein-1, and enhanced expression of prohormone convertases. These findings reveal a previously unappreciated role for hypothalamic E-Syt3 in DIO and related metabolic disorders.
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Liu S, Dai Q, Hua R, Liu T, Han S, Li S, Li J. Determination of Brain-Regional Blood Perfusion and Endogenous cPKCγ Impact on Ischemic Vulnerability of Mice with Global Ischemia. Neurochem Res 2017; 42:2814-2825. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-017-2294-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Xia L, Lei Z, Shi Z, Guo D, Su H, Ruan Y, Xu ZC. Enhanced autophagy signaling in diabetic rats with ischemia-induced seizures. Brain Res 2016; 1643:18-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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6
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Reduced expression of IA channels is associated with post-ischemic seizures. Epilepsy Res 2016; 124:40-8. [PMID: 27259067 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2016.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Post-stroke seizures are considered as a major cause of epilepsy in adults. The pathophysiologic mechanisms resulting in post-stroke seizures are not fully understood. The present study attempted to reveal a new mechanism underlying neuronal hyperexcitability responsible to the seizure development after ischemic stroke. METHODS Transient global ischemia was produced in adult Wistar rats using the 4-vessel occlusion (4-VO) method. The spontaneous behavioral seizures were defined by the Racine scale III-V. The neuronal death in the brain was determined by hematoxylin-eosin staining. The expression levels of A-type potassium channels were analyzed by immunohistochemical staining and western blotting. RESULTS We found that the incidence of spontaneous behavioral seizures increased according to the severity of ischemia with 0% after 15-min ischemia and ∼50% after 25-min ischemia. All behavioral seizures occurred with 48h after ischemia. Morphological analysis indicated that brain damage was not correlated with behavioral seizures. Immunohistochemical staining showed that the expression levels of the A-type potassium channel subunit Kv4.2 was significantly reduced in ischemic brains with behavioral seizures, but not in ischemic brains without seizures. In addition, rats failing to develop spontaneous behavioral seizures within 2days after ischemia were more sensitive to bicuculline-induced seizures at 2 months after ischemia than control rats. Meanwhile, Kv4.2 expression was decreased in brain at 2 months after ischemia. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrated the reduction of Kv4.2 expression might contribute to the development of post-ischemic seizures and long-term increased seizure susceptibility after ischemia. The mechanisms underlying post-stroke seizures and epilepsy is unknown so far. The down-regulation of IA channels may explained the abnormal neuronal hyperexcitability responsible for the seizure development after ischemic stroke.
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Petitjean H, Pawlowski SA, Fraine SL, Sharif B, Hamad D, Fatima T, Berg J, Brown CM, Jan LY, Ribeiro-da-Silva A, Braz JM, Basbaum AI, Sharif-Naeini R. Dorsal Horn Parvalbumin Neurons Are Gate-Keepers of Touch-Evoked Pain after Nerve Injury. Cell Rep 2015; 13:1246-1257. [PMID: 26527000 PMCID: PMC6038918 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.09.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a chronic debilitating disease that results from nerve damage, persists long after the injury has subsided, and is characterized by spontaneous pain and mechanical hypersensitivity. Although loss of inhibitory tone in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord is a major contributor to neuropathic pain, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying this disinhibition are unclear. Here, we combined pharmacogenetic activation and selective ablation approaches in mice to define the contribution of spinal cord parvalbumin (PV)-expressing inhibitory interneurons in naive and neuropathic pain conditions. Ablating PV neurons in naive mice produce neuropathic pain-like mechanical allodynia via disinhibition of PKCγ excitatory interneurons. Conversely, activating PV neurons in nerve-injured mice alleviates mechanical hypersensitivity. These findings indicate that PV interneurons are modality-specific filters that gate mechanical but not thermal inputs to the dorsal horn and that increasing PV inter-neuron activity can ameliorate the mechanical hypersensitivity that develops following nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugues Petitjean
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, McGill University, Montreal, H3G0B1 QC, Canada
| | | | - Steven Li Fraine
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, McGill University, Montreal, H3G0B1 QC, Canada
| | - Behrang Sharif
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, McGill University, Montreal, H3G0B1 QC, Canada
| | - Doulia Hamad
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, McGill University, Montreal, H3G0B1 QC, Canada
| | - Tarheen Fatima
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, McGill University, Montreal, H3G0B1 QC, Canada
| | - Jim Berg
- Departments of Physiology and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 1550 4th Street, RH-490D, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Claire M Brown
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, McGill University, Montreal, H3G0B1 QC, Canada; Advanced BioImaging Facility, McGill University, H3G0B1 QC, Canada
| | - Lily-Yeh Jan
- Departments of Physiology and Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 1550 4th Street, RH-490D, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Alfredo Ribeiro-da-Silva
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, H3G1Y6 QC, Canada; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, H3A0C7 QC, Canada
| | - Joao M Braz
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, 1550 4th Street, RH-348E, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Allan I Basbaum
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, 1550 4th Street, RH-348E, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Reza Sharif-Naeini
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, McGill University, Montreal, H3G0B1 QC, Canada.
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Schmidt HD, Kimmey BA, Arreola AC, Pierce RC. Group I metabotropic glutamate receptor-mediated activation of PKC gamma in the nucleus accumbens core promotes the reinstatement of cocaine seeking. Addict Biol 2015; 20:285-96. [PMID: 24506432 PMCID: PMC4380181 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that type I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) in the nucleus accumbens play a critical role in cocaine seeking. The present study sought to determine the role of accumbens core mGluR1, mGluR5 and protein kinase C (PKC) in cocaine priming-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. Here, we show that intra-accumbens core administration of the mGluR1/5 agonist DHPG (250 μM) promoted cocaine seeking in rats. Consistent with these results, administration of an mGluR1 (50.0 μM YM 298198) or mGluR5 (9.0 μM MPEP) antagonist directly into the accumbens core prior to a priming injection of cocaine (10 mg/kg) attenuated the reinstatement of drug seeking. mGluR1/5 stimulation activates a signaling cascade including PKC. Intracore microinjection of PKC inhibitors (10 μM Ro 31-8220 or 30.0 μM chelerythrine) also blunted cocaine seeking. In addition, cocaine priming-induced reinstatement of drug seeking was associated with increased phosphorylation of PKCγ, but not PKCα or PKCβII, in the core. There were no effects of pharmacological inhibition of mGluR1, mGluR5 or PKC in the accumbens core on sucrose seeking. Together, these findings indicate that mGluR1 and mGluR5 activation in the accumbens core promotes cocaine seeking and that these effects are reinforcer specific. Furthermore, stimulation of mGluR1 and mGluR5 in the accumbens core may regulate cocaine seeking, in part, through activation of PKCγ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heath D Schmidt
- Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Lei Z, Zhang H, Liang Y, Cui Q, Xu Z, Xu ZC. Reduced expression of IA channels is associated with postischemic seizures in hyperglycemic rats. J Neurosci Res 2014; 92:1775-84. [PMID: 25043828 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 04/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Poststroke seizures are considered to be the major cause of epilepsy in the elderly. The mechanisms of poststroke seizures remain unclear. A history of diabetes mellitus has been identified as an independent predictor of acute poststroke seizures in stroke patients. The present study sought to reveal the mechanisms for the development of postischemic seizures under hyperglycemic conditions. Transient forebrain ischemia was produced in adult Wistar rats by using the four-vessel occlusion method. At the normal blood glucose level, seizures occurred in ∼50% of rats after 25 min of ischemia. However, in rats with hyperglycemia, the incidence rate of postischemic seizures was significantly increased to 100%. The occurrence of postischemic seizures was not correlated with the severity of brain damage in hyperglycemic rats. Mannitol, an osmotic diuretic agent, could neither prevent postischemic seizures nor alleviate the exacerbated brain damage in the presence of hyperglycemia. K(+) channels play a critical role in controlling neuronal excitability. The expression of A-type K(+) channel subunit Kv4.2 in the hippocampus and the cortex was significantly reduced in hyperglycemic rats with seizures compared with those without seizures. These results suggest that the reduction of Kv4.2 expression could contribute to the development of postischemic seizures in hyperglycemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Lei
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana
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Antypa M, Faux C, Eichele G, Parnavelas JG, Andrews WD. Differential gene expression in migratory streams of cortical interneurons. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 34:1584-94. [PMID: 22103416 PMCID: PMC3401901 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07896.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Cortical interneurons originate in the ganglionic eminences of the subpallium and migrate into the cortex in well-defined tangential streams. At the start of corticogenesis, two streams of migrating neurons are evident: a superficial one at the level of the preplate (PPL), and a deeper one at the level of the intermediate zone (IZ). Currently, little is known about the signalling mechanisms that regulate interneuron migration, and almost nothing is known about the molecules that may be involved in their choice of migratory stream. Here, we performed a microarray analysis, comparing the changes in gene expression between cells migrating in the PPL and those migrating in the IZ at embryonic day 13.5. This analysis identified genes, many of them novel, that were upregulated in one of the two streams. Moreover, polymerase chain reaction, in situ hybridization experiments and immunohistochemistry showed the expression of these genes in interneurons migrating within the PPL or IZ, suggesting that they play a role in their migration and choice of stream.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Antypa
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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Lei Z, Deng P, Li J, Xu ZC. Alterations of A-type potassium channels in hippocampal neurons after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2011; 29:235-45. [PMID: 21895522 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2010.1537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with cognitive deficits, memory impairment, and epilepsy. Previous studies have reported neuronal loss and neuronal hyperexcitability in the post-traumatic hippocampus. A-type K+ currents (I(A)) play a critical role in modulating the intrinsic membrane excitability of hippocampal neurons. The disruption of I(A) is reportedly linked to hippocampal dysfunction. The present study investigates the changes of I(A) in the hippocampus after TBI. TBI in rats was induced by controlled cortical impact. The impact induced a reproducible lesion in the cortex and an obvious neuronal death in the ipsilateral hippocampus CA3 region. At one week after TBI, immunohistochemical staining and Western blotting showed that the expression of I(A) channel subunit Kv4.2 was markedly decreased in the ipsilateral hippocampus, but remained unchanged in the contralateral hippocampus. Meanwhile, electrophysiological recording showed that I(A) currents in ipsilateral CA1 pyramidal neurons were significantly reduced, which was associated with an increased neuronal excitability. Furthermore, there was an increased sensitivity to bicuculline-induced seizures in TBI rats. At 8 weeks after TBI, immunohistochemical staining and electrophysiological recording indicated that I(A) returned to control levels. These findings suggest that TBI causes a transient downregulation of I(A) in hippocampal CA1 neurons, which might be associated with the hyperexcitability in the post-traumatic hippocampus, and in turn leads to seizures and epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Lei
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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Abstract
Excitotoxicity is the major cause of many neurologic disorders including stroke. Potassium currents modulate neuronal excitability and therefore influence the pathological process. A-type potassium current (I(A)) is one of the major voltage-dependent potassium currents, yet its roles in excitotoxic cell death are not well understood. We report that, following ischemic insults, the I(A) increases significantly in large aspiny (LA) neurons but not medium spiny (MS) neurons in the striatum, which correlates with the higher resistance of LA neurons to ischemia. Activation of protein kinase Cα increases I(A) in LA neurons after ischemia. Cultured neurons from transgenic mice lacking both Kv1.4 and Kv4.2 subunits exhibit an increased vulnerability to ischemic insults. Increase of I(A) by recombinant expression of Kv1.4 or Kv4.2 is sufficient in improving the survival of MS neurons against ischemic insults both in vitro and in vivo. These results, taken together, provide compelling evidence for a protective role of I(A) against ischemia.
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Havekes R, Abel T, Van der Zee EA. The cholinergic system and neostriatal memory functions. Behav Brain Res 2010; 221:412-23. [PMID: 21129408 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.11.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2010] [Revised: 11/19/2010] [Accepted: 11/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The striatum is one of the major forebrain regions that strongly expresses muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors. This article reviews the current knowledge and our new findings about the striatal cholinoceptive organization and its role in a variety of cognitive functions. Pharmacological and genetic manipulations have indicated that the cholinergic and dopaminergic system in the striatum modulate each other's function. In addition to modulating the dopaminergic system, nicotinic cholinergic receptors facilitate GABA release, whereas muscarinic receptors attenuate GABA release. The striatal cholinergic system has also been implicated in various cognitive functions including procedural learning and intradimensional set shifting. Together, these data indicate that the cholinergic system in the striatum is involved in a diverse set of cognitive functions through interactions with other neurotransmitter systems including the dopaminergic and GABAergic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robbert Havekes
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, 433 S University Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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