1
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Jansen NA, Cestèle S, Marco SS, Schenke M, Stewart K, Patel J, Tolner EA, Brunklaus A, Mantegazza M, van den Maagdenberg AMJM. Brainstem depolarization-induced lethal apnea associated with gain-of-function SCN1AL263V is prevented by sodium channel blockade. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2309000121. [PMID: 38547067 PMCID: PMC10998578 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2309000121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Apneic events are frightening but largely benign events that often occur in infants. Here, we report apparent life-threatening apneic events in an infant with the homozygous SCN1AL263V missense mutation, which causes familial hemiplegic migraine type 3 in heterozygous family members, in the absence of epilepsy. Observations consistent with the events in the infant were made in an Scn1aL263V knock-in mouse model, in which apnea was preceded by a large brainstem DC-shift, indicative of profound brainstem depolarization. The L263V mutation caused gain of NaV1.1 function effects in transfected HEK293 cells. Sodium channel blockade mitigated the gain-of-function characteristics, rescued lethal apnea in Scn1aL263V mice, and decreased the frequency of severe apneic events in the patient. Hence, this study shows that SCN1AL263V can cause life-threatening apneic events, which in a mouse model were caused by profound brainstem depolarization. In addition to being potentially relevant to sudden infant death syndrome pathophysiology, these data indicate that sodium channel blockers may be considered therapeutic for apneic events in patients with these and other gain-of-function SCN1A mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico A. Jansen
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden2333 ZC, The Netherlands
| | - Sandrine Cestèle
- Université Côte d’Azur, Valbonne-Sophia Antipolis06560, France
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Valbonne-Sophia Antipolis06560, France
| | - Silvia Sanchez Marco
- Department of Paediatric Neurology, Bristol Royal Hospital for Children, University Hospitals Bristol, BristolBS2 8BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Maarten Schenke
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden2333 ZC, The Netherlands
| | - Kirsty Stewart
- West of Scotland Genetic Services, Queen Elizabeth University Hospital, GlasgowG51 4TF, United Kingdom
| | - Jayesh Patel
- Department of Paediatric Neurology, Bristol Royal Hospital for Children, University Hospitals Bristol, BristolBS2 8BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Else A. Tolner
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden2333 ZC, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden2333 ZA, The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Brunklaus
- The Paediatric Neurosciences Research Group, Royal Hospital for Children, GlasgowG51 4TF, United Kingdom
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, GlasgowG12 8TB, United Kingdom
| | - Massimo Mantegazza
- Université Côte d’Azur, Valbonne-Sophia Antipolis06560, France
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Valbonne-Sophia Antipolis06560, France
- Inserm, Valbonne-Sophia Antipolis06560, France
| | - Arn M. J. M. van den Maagdenberg
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden2333 ZC, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden2333 ZA, The Netherlands
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2
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Andrew RD, Hartings JA, Ayata C, Brennan KC, Dawson-Scully KD, Farkas E, Herreras O, Kirov SA, Müller M, Ollen-Bittle N, Reiffurth C, Revah O, Robertson RM, Shuttleworth CW, Ullah G, Dreier JP. The Critical Role of Spreading Depolarizations in Early Brain Injury: Consensus and Contention. Neurocrit Care 2022; 37:83-101. [PMID: 35257321 PMCID: PMC9259543 DOI: 10.1007/s12028-021-01431-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND When a patient arrives in the emergency department following a stroke, a traumatic brain injury, or sudden cardiac arrest, there is no therapeutic drug available to help protect their jeopardized neurons. One crucial reason is that we have not identified the molecular mechanisms leading to electrical failure, neuronal swelling, and blood vessel constriction in newly injured gray matter. All three result from a process termed spreading depolarization (SD). Because we only partially understand SD, we lack molecular targets and biomarkers to help neurons survive after losing their blood flow and then undergoing recurrent SD. METHODS In this review, we introduce SD as a single or recurring event, generated in gray matter following lost blood flow, which compromises the Na+/K+ pump. Electrical recovery from each SD event requires so much energy that neurons often die over minutes and hours following initial injury, independent of extracellular glutamate. RESULTS We discuss how SD has been investigated with various pitfalls in numerous experimental preparations, how overtaxing the Na+/K+ ATPase elicits SD. Elevated K+ or glutamate are unlikely natural activators of SD. We then turn to the properties of SD itself, focusing on its initiation and propagation as well as on computer modeling. CONCLUSIONS Finally, we summarize points of consensus and contention among the authors as well as where SD research may be heading. In an accompanying review, we critique the role of the glutamate excitotoxicity theory, how it has shaped SD research, and its questionable importance to the study of early brain injury as compared with SD theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. David Andrew
- grid.410356.50000 0004 1936 8331Queen’s University, Kingston, ON Canada
| | - Jed A. Hartings
- grid.24827.3b0000 0001 2179 9593University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Cenk Ayata
- grid.38142.3c000000041936754XHarvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA USA
| | - K. C. Brennan
- grid.223827.e0000 0001 2193 0096The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT USA
| | | | - Eszter Farkas
- grid.9008.10000 0001 1016 96251HCEMM-USZ Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism Research Group, and the Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Science and Informatics & Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Oscar Herreras
- grid.419043.b0000 0001 2177 5516Instituto de Neurobiologia Ramon Y Cajal (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas), Madrid, Spain
| | - Sergei. A. Kirov
- grid.410427.40000 0001 2284 9329Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA USA
| | - Michael Müller
- grid.411984.10000 0001 0482 5331University of Göttingen, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Nikita Ollen-Bittle
- grid.39381.300000 0004 1936 8884University of Western Ontario, London, ON Canada
| | - Clemens Reiffurth
- grid.7468.d0000 0001 2248 7639Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health; and the Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health., Berlin, Germany
| | - Omer Revah
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
| | | | | | - Ghanim Ullah
- grid.170693.a0000 0001 2353 285XUniversity of South Florida, Tampa, FL USA
| | - Jens P. Dreier
- grid.7468.d0000 0001 2248 7639Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health; and the Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health., Berlin, Germany
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3
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Booth MA, Gowers SAN, Hersey M, Samper IC, Park S, Anikeeva P, Hashemi P, Stevens MM, Boutelle MG. Fiber-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Monitoring pH and Transient Neurometabolic Lactate. Anal Chem 2021; 93:6646-6655. [PMID: 33797893 PMCID: PMC8153388 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c05108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Developing tools
that are able to monitor transient neurochemical
dynamics is important to decipher brain chemistry and function. Multifunctional
polymer-based fibers have been recently applied to monitor and modulate
neural activity. Here, we explore the potential of polymer fibers
comprising six graphite-doped electrodes and two microfluidic channels
within a flexible polycarbonate body as a platform for sensing pH
and neurometabolic lactate. Electrodes were made into potentiometric
sensors (responsive to pH) or amperometric sensors (lactate biosensors).
The growth of an iridium oxide layer made the fiber electrodes responsive
to pH in a physiologically relevant range. Lactate biosensors were
fabricated via platinum black growth on the fiber electrode, followed
by an enzyme layer, making them responsive to lactate concentration.
Lactate fiber biosensors detected transient neurometabolic lactate
changes in an in vivo mouse model. Lactate concentration changes were
associated with spreading depolarizations, known to be detrimental
to the injured brain. Induced waves were identified by a signature
lactate concentration change profile and measured as having a speed
of ∼2.7 mm/min (n = 4 waves). Our work highlights
the potential applications of fiber-based biosensors for direct monitoring
of brain metabolites in the context of injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marsilea A Booth
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.,Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Sally A N Gowers
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Melinda Hersey
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Isabelle C Samper
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Seongjun Park
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States.,Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea.,KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Polina Anikeeva
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Parastoo Hashemi
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.,Department of Chemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Molly M Stevens
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.,Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Martyn G Boutelle
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
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4
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Oliveira-Ferreira AI, Major S, Przesdzing I, Kang EJ, Dreier JP. Spreading depolarizations in the rat endothelin-1 model of focal cerebellar ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2020; 40:1274-1289. [PMID: 31280632 PMCID: PMC7232780 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x19861604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Focal brain ischemia is best studied in neocortex and striatum. Both show highly vulnerable neurons and high susceptibility to spreading depolarization (SD). Therefore, it has been hypothesized that these two variables generally correlate. However, this hypothesis is contradicted by findings in cerebellar cortex, which contains highly vulnerable neurons to ischemia, the Purkinje cells, but is said to be less susceptible to SD. Here, we found in the rat cerebellar cortex that elevated K+ induced a long-lasting depolarizing event superimposed with SDs. Cerebellar SDs resembled those in neocortex, but negative direct current (DC) shifts and regional blood flow responses were usually smaller. The K+ threshold for SD was higher in cerebellum than in previous studies in neocortex. We then topically applied endothelin-1 (ET-1) to the cerebellum, which is assumed to cause SD via vasoconstriction-induced focal ischemia. Although the blood flow decrease was similar to that in previous studies in neocortex, the ET-1 threshold for SD was higher. Quantitative cell counting found that the proportion of necrotic Purkinje cells was significantly higher in ET-1-treated rats than sham controls even if ET-1 had not caused SDs. Our results suggest that ischemic death of Purkinje cells does not require the occurrence of SD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana I Oliveira-Ferreira
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Major
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingo Przesdzing
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eun-Jeung Kang
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens P Dreier
- Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Einstein Center for Neurosciences Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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5
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Yamani N, Chalmer MA, Olesen J. Migraine with brainstem aura: defining the core syndrome. Brain 2019; 142:3868-3875. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awz338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
‘Migraine with brainstem aura’ – previously ‘basilar migraine’ – is a much disputed entity. By reviewing published case reports, a large dataset from a headache centre and a cohort of telephone-interviewed patients, Yamani et al. confirm the existence of migraine with brainstem aura and develop diagnostic criteria to define the core syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nooshin Yamani
- Danish Headache Center and Department of Neurology, University of Copenhagen, Rigshospitalet Glostrup, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Headache Department, Iranian Center of Neurological Research, Neuroscience Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mona Ameri Chalmer
- Danish Headache Center and Department of Neurology, University of Copenhagen, Rigshospitalet Glostrup, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jes Olesen
- Danish Headache Center and Department of Neurology, University of Copenhagen, Rigshospitalet Glostrup, Copenhagen, Denmark
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6
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Richter F, Eitner A, Leuchtweis J, Bauer R, Ebersberger A, Lehmenkühler A, Schaible HG. The potential of substance P to initiate and perpetuate cortical spreading depression (CSD) in rat in vivo. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17656. [PMID: 30518958 PMCID: PMC6281573 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36330-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The tachykinin substance P (SP) increases neuronal excitability, participates in homeostatic control, but induces brain oedema after stroke or trauma. We asked whether SP is able to induce cortical spreading depression (CSD) which often aggravates stroke-induced pathology. In anesthetized rats we applied SP (10−5, 10−6, 10−7, or 10−8 mol/L) to a restricted cortical area and recorded CSDs there and in remote non-treated areas using microelectrodes. SP was either applied in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF), or in aqua to perform a preconditioning. Plasma extravasation in cortical grey matter was assessed with Evans Blue. Only SP dissolved in aqua induced self-regenerating CSDs. SP dissolved in ACSF did not ignite CSDs even when excitability was increased by acetate-preconditioning. Aqua alone elicited as few CSDs as the lowest concentration of SP. Local pretreatment with 250 nmol/L of a neurokinin 1 receptor antagonist prevented the SP-induced plasma extravasation, the initiation of CSDs by 10−5 mol/L SP diluted in aqua, and the initiation of CSDs by aqua alone, but did not suppress KCl-induced CSD. Thus neurokinin 1 receptor antagonists may be used to explore the involvement of SP in CSDs in clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Richter
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, Jena University Hospital - Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany.
| | - Annett Eitner
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, Jena University Hospital - Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Johannes Leuchtweis
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, Jena University Hospital - Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Reinhard Bauer
- Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Jena University Hospital - Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Andrea Ebersberger
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, Jena University Hospital - Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Hans-Georg Schaible
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, Jena University Hospital - Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
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7
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Development and application of a microfabricated multimodal neural catheter for neuroscience. Biomed Microdevices 2016; 18:8. [PMID: 26780443 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-016-0034-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We present a microfabricated neural catheter for real-time continuous monitoring of multiple physiological, biochemical and electrophysiological variables that are critical to the diagnosis and treatment of evolving brain injury. The first generation neural catheter was realized by polyimide-based micromachining and a spiral rolling packaging method. The mechanical design and electrical operation of the microsensors were optimized and tailored for multimodal monitoring in rat brain such that the potential thermal, chemical and electrical crosstalk among the microsensors as well as errors from micro-environmental fluctuations are minimized. In vitro cytotoxicity analyses suggest that the developed neural catheters are minimally toxic to rat cortical neuronal cultures. In addition, in vivo histopathology results showed neither acute nor chronic inflammation for 7 days post implantation. The performance of the neural catheter was assessed in an in vivo needle prick model as a translational replica of a "mini" traumatic brain injury. It successfully monitored the expected transient brain oxygen, temperature, regional cerebral blood flow, and DC potential changes during the passage of spreading depolarization waves. We envisage that the developed multimodal neural catheter can be used to decipher the causes and consequences of secondary brain injury processes with high spatial and temporal resolution while reducing the potential for iatrogenic injury inherent to current use of multiple invasive probes.
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8
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Aiba I, Noebels JL. Spreading depolarization in the brainstem mediates sudden cardiorespiratory arrest in mouse SUDEP models. Sci Transl Med 2016; 7:282ra46. [PMID: 25855492 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aaa4050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cardiorespiratory collapse after a seizure is the leading cause of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) in young persons, but why only certain individuals are at risk is unknown. To identify a mechanism for this lethal cardiorespiratory failure, we examined whether genes linked to increased SUDEP risk lower the threshold for spreading depolarization (SD), a self-propagating depolarizing wave that silences neuronal networks. Mice carrying mutations in Kv1.1 potassium channels (-/-) and Scn1a sodium ion channels (+/R1407X) phenocopy many aspects of human SUDEP. In mutant, but not wild-type mice, seizures initiated by topical application of 4-aminopyridine to the cortex led to a slow, negative DC potential shift recorded in the dorsal medulla, a brainstem region that controls cardiorespiratory pacemaking. This irreversible event slowly depolarized cells and inactivated synaptic activity, producing cardiorespiratory arrest. Local initiation of SD in this region by potassium chloride microinjection also elicited electroencephalographic suppression, apnea, bradycardia, and asystole, similar to the events seen in monitored human SUDEP. In vitro study of brainstem slices confirmed that mutant mice had a lower threshold for SD elicited by metabolic substrate depletion and that immature mice were at greater risk than adults. Deletion of the gene encoding tau, which prolongs life in these mutants, also restored the normal SD threshold in Kv1.1-mutant mouse brainstem. Thus, brainstem SD may be a critical threshold event linking seizures and SUDEP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isamu Aiba
- Developmental Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Neurology, and NIH/NINDS Center for SUDEP Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jeffrey L Noebels
- Developmental Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Neurology, and NIH/NINDS Center for SUDEP Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA. Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA. Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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9
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Abstract
The term spreading depolarization (SD) refers to waves of abrupt, sustained mass depolarization in gray matter of the CNS. SD, which spreads from neuron to neuron in affected tissue, is characterized by a rapid near-breakdown of the neuronal transmembrane ion gradients. SD can be induced by hypoxic conditions--such as from ischemia--and facilitates neuronal death in energy-compromised tissue. SD has also been implicated in migraine aura, where SD is assumed to ascend in well-nourished tissue and is typically benign. In addition to these two ends of the "SD continuum," an SD wave can propagate from an energy-depleted tissue into surrounding, well-nourished tissue, as is often the case in stroke and brain trauma. This review presents the neurobiology of SD--its triggers and propagation mechanisms--as well as clinical manifestations of SD, including overlaps and differences between migraine aura and stroke, and recent developments in neuromonitoring aimed at better diagnosis and more targeted treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens P Dreier
- Department of Neurology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Center for Stroke Research, Charité University Medicine Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Clemens Reiffurth
- Department of Experimental Neurology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Center for Stroke Research, Charité University Medicine Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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10
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Karunasinghe RN, Lipski J. Oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD)-induced spreading depression in the Substantia Nigra. Brain Res 2013; 1527:209-21. [PMID: 23796781 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Spreading depression (SD) is a profound depolarization of neurons and glia that propagates in a wave-like manner across susceptible brain regions, and can develop during periods of compromised cellular energy such as ischemia, when it influences the severity of acute neuronal damage. Although SD has been well characterized in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, little is known of this event in the Substantia Nigra (SN), a brainstem nucleus engaged in motor control and reward-related behavior. Transverse brain slices (250 μm; P21-23 rats) containing the SN were subject to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) tests, modeling brain ischemia. SD developed in lateral aspects of the SN within 3.3±0.2 min of OGD onset, and spread through the Substantia Nigra pars reticulata (SNr), as indicated by fast-occurring and propagating increased tissue light transmittance and negative shift of extracellular DC potential. These events were associated with profound mitochondrial membrane depolarization (ΔΨm) throughout the SN, as demonstrated by increased Rhodamine 123 fluorescence. Extracellular recordings from individual SNr neurons indicated rapid depolarization followed by depolarizing block, while dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNc) showed inhibition of firing associated with hyperpolarization. SD evoked in the SNr was similar to OGD-induced SD in the CA1 region in hippocampal slices. In the hippocampus, SD also developed during anoxia or aglycemia alone (associated with less profound ΔΨm than OGD), while these conditions rarely led to SD in the SNr. Our results demonstrate that OGD consistently evokes SD in the SN, and that this phenomenon only involves the SNr. It remains to be established whether nigral SD contributes to neuronal damage associated with a sudden-onset form of Parkinson's disease known as 'vascular parkinsonism'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rashika N Karunasinghe
- Department of Physiology and Centre for Brain Research, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 92019, New Zealand
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11
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Rogers ML, Feuerstein D, Leong CL, Takagaki M, Niu X, Graf R, Boutelle MG. Continuous online microdialysis using microfluidic sensors: dynamic neurometabolic changes during spreading depolarization. ACS Chem Neurosci 2013; 4:799-807. [PMID: 23574576 PMCID: PMC3656742 DOI: 10.1021/cn400047x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Microfluidic glucose biosensors and potassium ion selective electrodes were used in an in vivo study to measure the neurochemical effects of spreading depolarizations (SD), which have been shown to be detrimental to the injured human brain. A microdialysis probe implanted in the cortex of rats was connected to a microfluidic PDMS chip containing the sensors. The dialysate was also analyzed using our gold standard, rapid sampling microdialysis (rsMD). The glucose biosensor performance was validated against rsMD with excellent results. The glucose biosensors successfully monitored concentration changes, in response to SD wave induction, in the range of 10-400 μM with a second time-resolution. The data show that during a SD wave, there is a time delay of 62 ± 24.8 s (n = 4) between the onset of the increase in potassium and the decrease in glucose. This delay can be for the first time demonstrated, thanks to the high-temporal resolution of the microfluidic sensors sampling from a single tissue site (the microdialysis probe), and it indicates that the decrease in glucose is due to the high demand of energy required for repolarization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chi Leng Leong
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Xize Niu
- Engineering
and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Rudolf Graf
- Max Planck Institute for Neurological Research, Cologne, Germany
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12
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Richter F, Bauer R, Ebersberger A, Lehmenkühler A, Schaible HG. Enhanced neuronal excitability in adult rat brainstem causes widespread repetitive brainstem depolarizations with cardiovascular consequences. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2012; 32:1535-45. [PMID: 22453631 PMCID: PMC3421090 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2012.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The brainstem of the adult rat is relatively resistant to spreading depolarization (SD) but after enhancement of excitability SD can be evoked by local application of KCl. In the present experiments, we observed that the enhanced excitability even triggers prolonged periods of repetitive depolarizations (RDs), which elicit significant cardiovascular changes. In contrast to KCl-evoked SDs with amplitudes of ∼24 mV and spreading velocity of 4 mm/min, spontaneous RDs had amplitudes of 7 to 12 mV, propagated up to 30 times faster than KCl-evoked SDs, and depolarized larger brainstem areas including the contralateral side. Similarly as SD, RDs depended on glutamatergic neurotransmission and were blocked by MK-801 or by the calcium channel blocker agatoxin. They depended on sodium channels and were blocked by tetrodotoxin. Functionally, the invasion of RDs into the spinal trigeminal and other nuclei evoked bursts of action potentials, indicating that specific neuronal systems are affected. In fact, during episodes of RDs the blood pressure and the local blood flow at the surface of the brainstem and the cortex increased substantially. Brainstem RDs did not propagate into the cerebral cortex. We propose to consider brainstem RPs as a pathophysiological mechanism whose significance for brainstem disease states should be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Richter
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany.
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13
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Aging-dependent brain electrophysiological effects in rats after distinct lactation conditions, and treadmill exercise: A spreading depression analysis. Exp Gerontol 2012; 47:452-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2012.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2012] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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14
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Tajti J, Szok D, Párdutz Á, Tuka B, Csáti A, Kuris A, Toldi J, Vécsei L. Where does a migraine attack originate? In the brainstem. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2012; 119:557-68. [PMID: 22426834 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-012-0788-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Migraine is a common, paroxysmal, highly disabling primary headache disorder. The origin of migraine attacks is enigmatic. Numerous clinical and experimental results suggest that the activation of distinct brainstem nuclei is crucial in its pathogenesis, but the primary cause of this activation is not fully understood. We conclude that the initialization of a migraine attack can be explained as an altered function of the neuronal elements of the brainstem nuclei. In light of our findings and the literature data, we can assume that migraine is a subcortical disorder of a specific brainstem area.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tajti
- Department of Neurology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Centre, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, Szeged 6725, Hungary
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15
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Kron M, Zimmermann JL, Dutschmann M, Funke F, Müller M. Altered responses of MeCP2-deficient mouse brain stem to severe hypoxia. J Neurophysiol 2011; 105:3067-79. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00822.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) patients suffer from respiratory arrhythmias with frequent apneas causing intermittent hypoxia. In a RTT mouse model (methyl-CpG-binding protein 2-deficient mice; Mecp2−/ y) we recently discovered an enhanced hippocampal susceptibility to hypoxia and hypoxia-induced spreading depression (HSD). In the present study we investigated whether this also applies to infant Mecp2−/ y brain stem, which could become life-threatening due to failure of cardiorespiratory control. HSD most reliably occurred in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and the spinal trigeminal nucleus (Sp5). HSD susceptibility of the Mecp2−/ y NTS and Sp5 was increased on 8 mM K+-mediated conditioning. 5-HT1A receptor stimulation with 8-hydroxy-2-(di-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) postponed HSD by up to 40%, mediating genotype-independent protection. The deleterious impact of HSD on in vitro respiration became obvious in rhythmically active slices, where HSD propagation into the pre-Bötzinger complex (pre-BötC) immediately arrested the respiratory rhythm. Compared with wild-type, the Mecp2−/ y pre-BötC was invaded less frequently by HSD, but if so, HSD occurred earlier. On reoxygenation, in vitro rhythms reappeared with increased frequency, which was less pronounced in Mecp2−/ y slices. 8-OH-DPAT increased respiratory frequency but failed to postpone HSD in the pre-BötC. Repetitive hypoxia facilitated posthypoxic recovery only if HSD occurred. In 57% of Mecp2−/ y slices, however, HSD spared the pre-BötC. Although this occasionally promoted residual hypoxic respiratory activity (“gasping”), it also prolonged the posthypoxic recovery, and thus the absence of central inspiratory drive, which in vivo would lengthen respiratory arrest. In view of the breathing disorders in RTTs, the increased hypoxia susceptibility of MeCP2-deficient brain stem potentially contributes to life-threatening disturbances of cardiorespiratory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Kron
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Research Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Zentrum für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Abteilung Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologie, and
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jasper L. Zimmermann
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Research Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Zentrum für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Abteilung Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologie, and
| | - Mathias Dutschmann
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Research Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Zentrum für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Abteilung Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologie, and
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Frank Funke
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Research Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Zentrum für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Abteilung Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologie, and
| | - Michael Müller
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Research Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Zentrum für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Abteilung Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologie, and
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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16
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Nakamura H, Strong AJ, Dohmen C, Sakowitz OW, Vollmar S, Sué M, Kracht L, Hashemi P, Bhatia R, Yoshimine T, Dreier JP, Dunn AK, Graf R. Spreading depolarizations cycle around and enlarge focal ischaemic brain lesions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 133:1994-2006. [PMID: 20504874 PMCID: PMC2892938 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awq117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
How does infarction in victims of stroke and other types of acute brain injury expand to its definitive size in subsequent days? Spontaneous depolarizations that repeatedly spread across the cerebral cortex, sometimes at remarkably regular intervals, occur in patients with all types of injury. Here, we show experimentally with in vivo real-time imaging that similar, spontaneous depolarizations cycle repeatedly around ischaemic lesions in the cerebral cortex, and enlarge the lesion in step with each cycle. This behaviour results in regular periodicity of depolarization when monitored at a single point in the lesion periphery. We present evidence from clinical monitoring to suggest that depolarizations may cycle in the ischaemic human brain, perhaps explaining progressive growth of infarction. Despite their apparent detrimental role in infarct growth, we argue that cycling of depolarizations around lesions might also initiate upregulation of the neurobiological responses involved in repair and remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Nakamura
- Max Planck Institute for Neurological Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
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17
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Richter F, Bauer R, Lehmenkühler A, Schaible HG. The relationship between sudden severe hypoxia and ischemia-associated spreading depolarization in adult rat brainstem in vivo. Exp Neurol 2010; 224:146-54. [PMID: 20226182 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2009] [Revised: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Severe ischemia can induce spreading depolarization (SD) in the cerebral cortex, which is thought to contribute significantly to cerebral dysfunction. Whether the mature brainstem shows SD upon reduced oxygen supply has not been investigated although SDs may significantly influence brainstem functions. In anesthetized adult rats, we induced severe short-lasting hypoxia (SSH) by stopping artificial respiration for about 1 min or by ventilation with pure nitrogen for 1, 2 or 3 min, and milder hypoxia by ventilation with 6% O(2) in N(2) for 10 min. We measured DC potentials in the brainstem and cerebral cortex, systemic arterial blood pressure, heart rate and local blood flow at the brainstem or cerebral cortex surface. SSH lasting up to 1 min did not induce DC shifts in native brainstem but reduced heart rate, systemic blood pressure and blood flow in cortex and brainstem. Longer lasting SSH protocols both reduced systemic blood pressure and induced SD in the brainstem, but the magnitude of the cardiovascular response was not influenced by the simultaneous occurrence of SD. When neuronal excitability in the brainstem was artificially enhanced, SSH of 1 min evoked SD but again the magnitude of cardiovascular changes during SSH was not increased. SSH lasting 3 min evoked non-reversible sustained depolarization. SSH did not render the brainstem more excitable for classical SD evoked by local KCl application. Thus, sudden severe hypoxia/ischemia evokes SDs in the brainstem, but the occurrence of the so-elicited SD does not influence the immediate cardiovascular response to SSH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Richter
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, University Hospital Jena, Teichgraben 8, D-07740 Jena, Germany.
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18
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Armstrong GAB, López-Guerrero JJ, Dawson-Scully K, Peña F, Robertson RM. Inhibition of protein kinase G activity protects neonatal mouse respiratory network from hyperthermic and hypoxic stress. Brain Res 2009; 1311:64-72. [PMID: 19945442 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2009] [Revised: 11/16/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In spite of considerable research attention focused on clarifying the mechanisms by which the mammalian respiratory rhythm is generated, little attention has been given to examining how this neuronal circuit can be protected from heat stress. Hyperthermia has a profound effect on neuronal circuits including the circuit that generates breathing in mammals. As temperature of the brainstem increases, respiratory frequency concomitantly rises. If temperature continues to increase respiratory arrest (apnea) and death can occur. Previous research has implicated protein kinase G (PKG) activity in regulating neuronal thermosensitivity of neuronal circuits in invertebrates. Here we examine if pharmacological manipulation of PKG activity in a brainstem slice preparation could alter the thermosensitivity of the fictive neonatal mouse respiratory rhythm. We report a striking effect following alteration of PKG activity in the brainstem such that slices treated with the PKG inhibitor KT5823 recovered fictive respiratory rhythm generation significantly faster than control slices and slices treated with a PKG activator (8-Br-cGMP). Furthermore, slices treated with 8-Br-cGMP arrested fictive respiration at a significantly lower temperature than all other treatment groups. In a separate set of experiments we examined if altered PKG activity could regulate the response of slices to hypoxia by altering the protective switch to fictive gasping. Slices treated with 8-Br-cGMP did not switch to the fictive gasp-like pattern following exposure to hypoxia whereas slices treated with KT5823 did display fictive gasping. We propose that PKG activity inversely regulates the amount of stress the neonatal mammalian respiratory rhythm can endure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary A B Armstrong
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Biosciences Complex, Kingston ON, Canada.
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19
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Abstract
Despite the relatively well-characterized headache mechanisms in migraine, upstream events triggering individual attacks are poorly understood. This lack of mechanistic insight has hampered a rational approach to prophylactic drug discovery. Unlike targeted abortive and analgesic interventions, mainstream migraine prophylaxis has been largely based on serendipitous observations (e.g. propranolol) and presumed class effects (e.g. anticonvulsants). Recent studies suggest that spreading depression is the final common pathophysiological target for several established or investigational migraine prophylactic drugs. Building on these observations, spreading depression can now be explored for its predictive utility as a preclinical drug screening paradigm in migraine prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Ayata
- Stroke and Neurovascular Regulation Laboratory, Department of Radiology, and Stroke Service and Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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20
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Funke F, Kron M, Dutschmann M, Müller M. Infant Brain Stem Is Prone to the Generation of Spreading Depression During Severe Hypoxia. J Neurophysiol 2009; 101:2395-410. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.91260.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Spreading depression (SD) resembles a concerted, massive neuronal/glial depolarization propagating within the gray matter. Being associated with cerebropathology, such as cerebral ischemia or hemorrhage, epileptic seizures, and migraine, it is well studied in cortex and hippocampus. We have now analyzed the susceptibility of rat brain stem to hypoxia-induced spreading depression-like depolarization (HSD), which could critically interfere with cardiorespiratory control. In rat brain stem slices, severe hypoxia (oxygen withdrawal) triggered HSD within minutes. The sudden extracellular DC potential shift of approximately −20 mV showed the typical profile known from other brain regions and was accompanied by an intrinsic optical signal (IOS). Spatiotemporal IOS analysis revealed that in infant brain stem, HSD was preferably ignited within the spinal trigeminal nucleus and then mostly spread out medially, invading the hypoglossal nucleus, the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), and the ventral respiratory group (VRG). The neuronal hypoxic depolarizations underlying the generation of HSD were massive, but incomplete. The propagation velocity of HSD and the associated extracellular K+ rise were also less marked than in other brain regions. In adult brain stem, HSD was mostly confined to the NTS and its occurrence was facilitated by hypotonic solutions, but not by glial poisoning or block of GABAergic and glycinergic synapses. In conclusion, brain stem tissue reliably generates propagating HSD episodes, which may be of interest for basilar-type migraine and brain stem infarcts. The preferred occurrence of HSD in the infant brain stem and its propagation into the VRG may be of importance for neonatal brain stem pathology such as sudden infant death syndrome.
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21
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Richter F, Bauer R, Lehmenkühler A, Schaible HG. Spreading depression in the brainstem of the adult rat: electrophysiological parameters and influences on regional brainstem blood flow. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2008; 28:984-94. [PMID: 18059430 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cortical spreading depression is a pathophysiological excitation wave that occurs during pathophysiological brain conditions such as ischemic brain infarction, migraine aura, and others. Judged from experiments in rodents, the brainstem is thought to be comparatively resistant to the generation of spreading depression. However, because spreading depression can be elicited in the brainstem of rat pups after superfusing the brainstem with solutions enhancing excitability, we reinvestigated spreading depression in the brainstem of the adult rat. Based on theoretical predictions indicating a major role of extracellular potassium in susceptibility to spreading depression, we used conditioning solutions in which chloride ions were replaced by acetate and tetraethylammonium chloride and a small amount of KCl were added. Under these conditions, spreading depression was reproducibly elicited in the brainstem either by topical application of KCl crystals to the brainstem surface or by local microinjection of KCl into the brainstem. The direct current shifts so elicited were accompanied by typical elevation of extracellular potassium ions, propagated in the brainstem, and were prevented by MK-801, an N-methyl D-aspartate blocker. During spreading depression, the regional blood flow in the brainstem was transiently increased. In addition, systemic arterial blood pressure, but not the heart rate, was transiently enhanced. In the nonconditioned brainstem, KCl stimulation neither elicited spreading depression nor induced changes in regional blood flow and blood pressure. These data show that proper conditioning renders the brainstem susceptible to spreading depression, and that spreading depression at this site elicits changes in local circulation and systemic blood pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Richter
- Institute of Physiology I/Neurophysiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany.
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22
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Gupta V. Anisometropia and migraine: is the link to cortical spreading depression logically defensible? J Neurol 2006; 253:813-4. [PMID: 16511652 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-006-0102-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2005] [Accepted: 11/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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23
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Gerich FJ, Hepp S, Probst I, Müller M. Mitochondrial inhibition prior to oxygen-withdrawal facilitates the occurrence of hypoxia-induced spreading depression in rat hippocampal slices. J Neurophysiol 2006; 96:492-504. [PMID: 16611842 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01015.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxygen withdrawal blocks mitochondrial respiration. In rat hippocampal slices, this triggers a massive depolarization of CA1 neurons and a negative shift of the extracellular DC potential, the characteristic sign of hypoxia-induced spreading depression (HSD). To unveil the contribution of mitochondria to the sensing of hypoxia and the ignition of HSD, we modified mitochondrial function. Mitochondrial uncoupling by carbonyl cyanide 4-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (FCCP, 1 microM) prior to hypoxia hastened the onset and shortened the duration of HSD. Blocking mitochondrial ATP synthesis by oligomycin (10 microg/ml) was without effect. Inhibition of mitochondrial respiration by rotenone (20 microM), diphenyleneiodonium (25 microM), or antimycin A (20 microM) also hastened HSD onset and shortened HSD duration. 3-nitropropionic acid (1 mM) increased HSD duration. Cyanide (100 microM) hastened HSD onset and increased HSD duration. At higher concentrations, cyanide (1 mM), azide (2 mM), and FCCP (10 microM) triggered SD episodes on their own. Compared with control HSD, the spatial extent of the intrinsic optical signals of cyanide- and azide-induced SDs was more pronounced. Monitoring NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) autofluorescence and mitochondrial membrane potential verified the mitochondrial targeting by the drugs used. Except 1 mM cyanide, no treatment reduced cellular ATP levels severely and no correlation was found between ATP, NADH, or FAD levels and the time to HSD onset. Therefore ATP depletion or a cytosolic reducing shift due to NADH/FADH2 accumulation cannot serve as a general explanation for the hastening of HSD onset on mitochondrial inhibition. Additional redox couples (glutathione) or events downstream of the mitochondrial depolarization need to be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian J Gerich
- Zentrum Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Abteilung Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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24
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Richter F, Lehmenkühler A, Schaible HG. Voltage-gated calcium channels are not involved in generation and propagation of spreading depression (SD) in the brainstem of immature rats. Neurosci Lett 2005; 390:15-20. [PMID: 16112454 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.07.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2005] [Revised: 07/18/2005] [Accepted: 07/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Spreading depression (SD) can be elicited in the brainstem of rats younger than 13 days when excitability is enhanced by acetate superfusion [F. Richter, S. Rupprecht, A. Lehmenkühler, H.-G. Schaible, Spreading depression can be elicited in brain stem in immature but not adult rats, J. Neurophysiol. 90 (2003) 2163--2170]. To investigate whether voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) modify initiation and propagation of SD in this type of tissue, we applied specific blockers to L-, T-, P/Q-, and N-type VGCCs locally or systemically. SD-related d.c. potentials and concomitant increases in extracellular potassium concentration ([K(+)](e)) were unaffected by the L- and T-type VGCC blocker flunarizine that was applied either systemically (up to 2mg/kg body weight) or by superfusion onto the brainstem (40 microM). In addition, local application of the P/Q-type VGCC blocker omega-agatoxin (1 microM) or of the N-type VGCC blocker omega-conotoxin (1 microM) to the brainstem surface did not influence SD. The results indicate that VGCCs do not modify the generation or propagation of SDs in the brainstem of the immature rat. Blockade of N-type VGCCs disturbed the normal breathing rhythm. Application of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) (250-1000 microM) that elicited SD in the immature cortex, failed to elicit SD in the immature brainstem. In summary, it is likely that K(+) initiates and propagates brainstem SDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Richter
- Institute of Physiology I - Neurophysiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Teichgraben 8, D-07740 Jena, Germany.
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25
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Ayata C, Moskowitz MA. Cortical spreading depression confounds concentration-dependent pial arteriolar dilation during N-methyl-D-aspartate superfusion. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 290:H1837-41. [PMID: 16299263 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.01102.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pial arterioles do not express N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors but dilate in response to topical NMDA application. We explored the mechanism underlying NMDA-mediated responses in murine pial arterioles (11-31 microm), using a closed cranial window preparation, and found that arteriolar dilation was not concentration dependent. Pial arteriolar diameter abruptly increased within 3 min of superfusing 50 or 100 microM NMDA. Dilation reached a peak within 1 min (46 +/- 14%) and then declined to a plateau (28 +/- 13%) for the duration of superfusion. Whereas a higher concentration (200 microM) did not produce further dilation, lower concentrations (1-10 microM) did not dilate the arterioles at all. MK-801 (10 microM) abrogated the dilation response, whereas Nomega-nitro-L-arginine (1 mM) attenuated the peak and abolished the sustained dilation during NMDA superfusion. We determined that NMDA-induced pial arteriolar responses were evoked by cortical spreading depression, because abrupt vasodilation during 50 or 100 microM NMDA superfusion was associated with a large negative slow potential shift and electrocorticogram suppression that spread from the superfusion window to distant cortical areas. Our data suggest that the responses of pial arterioles to NMDA are caused in part by neurovascular coupling due to cortical spreading depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cenk Ayata
- Stroke and Neurovascular Regulation Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
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26
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Gupta VK. Cortical Spreading Depression Is Neuroprotective: The Challenge of Basic Sciences. Headache 2005; 45:177-8; author reply 178. [PMID: 15705129 DOI: 10.1111/j.1526-4610.2005.05039_1.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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27
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Gorji A, Zahn PK, Pogatzki EM, Speckmann EJ. Spinal and cortical spreading depression enhance spinal cord activity. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 15:70-9. [PMID: 14751772 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2003.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortical spreading depression (CSD) has been suggested to underlie some neurological disorders such as migraine. Despite the intensity with which many investigators have studied SD in the brain, only a few studies have aimed to identify SD in the spinal cord. Here we described the main characteristic features of SD in the spinal cord induced by different methods including various spinal cord injury models and demonstrated that SD enhances the spinal cord activity following a transient suppressive period. These findings suggest that SD may play a role in the mechanisms of spinal neurogenic shock, spinal cord injury, and pain. Furthermore, we studied the effect of CSD on the neuronal activity of the spinal cord. CSD was induced via cortical pinprick injury or KCl injection in the somatosensory cortex. CSD did not propagate into the cervical spinal cord. However, intracellular recordings of the neurons in the dorsal horn of C2 segment, ipsilateral to the hemisphere in which CSD was evoked, showed a transient suppression of spontaneous burst discharges, followed by a significant enhancement of the neuronal activity. This indicates a link between a putative cause of the neurological symptoms and the subsequent pain of migraine.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Gorji
- Institut für Physiologie, Universität Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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