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Alesci A, Fumia A, Albano M, Messina E, D'Angelo R, Mangano A, Miller A, Spanò N, Savoca S, Capillo G. Investigating the internal system of defense of Gastropoda Aplysia depilans (Gmelin, 1791): Focus on hemocytes. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 137:108791. [PMID: 37146849 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.108791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The internal defense system of mollusks represents an efficient protection against pathogens and parasites, involving several biological immune processes, such as phagocytosis, encapsulation, cytotoxicity, and antigenic recognition of self/non-self. Mollusks possess professional, migratory, and circulating cells that play a key role in the defense of the organism, the hemocytes. Several studies have been performed on hemocytes from different mollusks, but, to date, these cells are still scarcely explored. Different hemocyte populations have been found, according to the presence or absence of granules, size, and the species of mollusks studied. Our study aims to deepen the knowledge of the hemocytes of the gastropod Aplysia depilans using morphological techniques and light and confocal microscopy, testing Toll-like receptor 2, inducible nitric oxide synthetase, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha 7 subunit. Our results show two hemocyte populations distinguishable by size, and presence/absence of granules in the cytoplasm, strongly positive for the antibodies tested, suggesting for the first time the presence of these receptors on the surface of sea hare hemocytes by immunohistochemistry. These data help in the understanding of the immune system of this gastropod, providing additional data for comprehending the evolution of the defense response in metazoan phylogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessio Alesci
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166, Messina, Italy.
| | - Angelo Fumia
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Padiglione C, A. O. U. Policlinico "G. Martino", 98124, Messina, Italy.
| | - Marco Albano
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, 98168, Messina, Italy.
| | - Emmanuele Messina
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166, Messina, Italy.
| | - Roberta D'Angelo
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166, Messina, Italy.
| | - Angelica Mangano
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166, Messina, Italy.
| | - Anthea Miller
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, 98168, Messina, Italy.
| | - Nunziacarla Spanò
- Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125, Messina, Italy; Institute for Marine Biological Resources and Biotechnology (IRBIM), National Research Council (CNR), Section of Messina, 98100, Messina, Italy.
| | - Serena Savoca
- Department of Biomedical, Dental and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125, Messina, Italy; Institute for Marine Biological Resources and Biotechnology (IRBIM), National Research Council (CNR), Section of Messina, 98100, Messina, Italy.
| | - Gioele Capillo
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, 98168, Messina, Italy; Institute for Marine Biological Resources and Biotechnology (IRBIM), National Research Council (CNR), Section of Messina, 98100, Messina, Italy.
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Pergolizzi S, Fumia A, D'Angelo R, Mangano A, Lombardo GP, Giliberti A, Messina E, Alesci A, Lauriano ER. Expression and function of toll-like receptor 2 in vertebrate. Acta Histochem 2023; 125:152028. [PMID: 37075649 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2023.152028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are essential for identifying and detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) produced by a variety of pathogens, including viruses and bacteria. Since TLR2 is the only TLR capable of creating functional heterodimers with more than two other TLR types, it is very important for vertebrate immunity. TLR2 not only broadens the variety of PAMPs that it can recognize but has also the potential to diversify the subsequent signaling cascades. TLR2 is ubiquitous, which is consistent with the wide variety of tasks and functions it serves. Immune cells, endothelial cells, and epithelial cells have all been found to express TLR2. This review aims to gather currently available information about the preservation of this intriguing immunological molecule in the phylum of vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Pergolizzi
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Angelo Fumia
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Padiglione C, A. O. U. Policlinico "G. Martino", 98124 Messina, Italy
| | - Roberta D'Angelo
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Angelica Mangano
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Giorgia Pia Lombardo
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Angelo Giliberti
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Emmanuele Messina
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Alessio Alesci
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy.
| | - Eugenia Rita Lauriano
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical, and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
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Hydrogen Peroxide Gates a Voltage-Dependent Cation Current in Aplysia Neuroendocrine Cells. J Neurosci 2019; 39:9900-9913. [PMID: 31676600 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1460-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonselective cation channels promote persistent spiking in many neurons from a diversity of animals. In the hermaphroditic marine-snail, Aplysia californica, synaptic input to the neuroendocrine bag cell neurons triggers various cation channels, causing an ∼30 min afterdischarge of action potentials and the secretion of egg-laying hormone. During the afterdischarge, protein kinase C is also activated, which in turn elevates hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), likely by stimulating nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase. The present study investigated whether H2O2 regulates cation channels to drive the afterdischarge. In single, cultured bag cell neurons, H2O2 elicited a prolonged, concentration- and voltage-dependent inward current, associated with an increase in membrane conductance and a reversal potential of ∼+30 mV. Compared with normal saline, the presence of Ca2+-free, Na+-free, or Na+/Ca2+-free extracellular saline, lowered the current amplitude and left-shifted the reversal potential, consistent with a nonselective cationic conductance. Preventing H2O2 reduction with the glutathione peroxidase inhibitor, mercaptosuccinate, enhanced the H2O2-induced current, while boosting glutathione production with its precursor, N-acetylcysteine, or adding the reducing agent, dithiothreitol, lessened the response. Moreover, the current generated by the alkylating agent, N-ethylmaleimide, occluded the effect of H2O2 The H2O2-induced current was inhibited by tetrodotoxin as well as the cation channel blockers, 9-phenanthrol and clotrimazole. In current-clamp, H2O2 stimulated burst firing, but this was attenuated or prevented altogether by the channel blockers. Finally, H2O2 evoked an afterdischarge from whole bag cell neuron clusters recorded ex vivo by sharp-electrode. H2O2 may regulate a cation channel to influence long-term changes in activity and ultimately reproduction.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is often studied in a pathological context, such as ischemia or inflammation. However, H2O2 also physiologically modulates synaptic transmission and gates certain transient receptor potential channels. That stated, the effect of H2O2 on neuronal excitability remains less well defined. Here, we examine how H2O2 influences Aplysia bag cell neurons, which elicit ovulation by releasing hormones during an afterdischarge. These neuroendocrine cells are uniquely identifiable and amenable to recording as individual cultured neurons or a cluster from the nervous system. In both culture and the cluster, H2O2 evokes prolonged, afterdischarge-like bursting by gating a nonselective voltage-dependent cationic current. Thus, H2O2, which is generated in response to afterdischarge-associated second messengers, may prompt the firing necessary for hormone secretion and procreation.
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White SH, Sturgeon RM, Gu Y, Nensi A, Magoski NS. Tyrosine Phosphorylation Determines Afterdischarge Initiation by Regulating an Ionotropic Cholinergic Receptor. Neuroscience 2018; 372:273-288. [PMID: 29306054 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Changes to neuronal activity often involve a rapid and precise transition from low to high excitability. In the marine snail, Aplysia, the bag cell neurons control reproduction by undergoing an afterdischarge, which begins with synaptic input releasing acetylcholine to open an ionotropic cholinergic receptor. Gating of this receptor causes depolarization and a shift from silence to continuous action potential firing, leading to the neuroendocrine secretion of egg-laying hormone and ovulation. At the onset of the afterdischarge, there is a rise in intracellular Ca2+, followed by both protein kinase C (PKC) activation and tyrosine dephosphorylation. To determine whether these signals influence the acetylcholine ionotropic receptor, we examined the bag cell neuron cholinergic response both in culture and isolated clusters using whole-cell and/or sharp-electrode electrophysiology. The acetylcholine-induced current was not altered by increasing intracellular Ca2+ via voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, clamping intracellular Ca2+ with exogenous Ca2+ buffers, or activating PKC with phorbol esters. However, lowering phosphotyrosine levels by inhibiting tyrosine kinases both reduced the cholinergic current and prevented acetylcholine from triggering action potentials or afterdischarge-like bursts. In other systems, acetylcholine receptors are often modulated by multiple signals, but bag cell neurons appear to be more restrictive in this regard. Prior work finds that, as the afterdischarge proceeds, tyrosine dephosphorylation leads to biophysical alterations that promote persistent firing. Because this firing is subsequent to the cholinergic input, inhibiting the acetylcholine receptor may represent a means of properly orchestrating synaptically induced changes in excitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean H White
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology and Neuroscience Graduate Programs, Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Raymond M Sturgeon
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology and Neuroscience Graduate Programs, Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Yueling Gu
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology and Neuroscience Graduate Programs, Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Alysha Nensi
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology and Neuroscience Graduate Programs, Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Neil S Magoski
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology and Neuroscience Graduate Programs, Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
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Fujii N, Louie JC, McNeely BD, Amano T, Nishiyasu T, Kenny GP. Mechanisms of nicotine-induced cutaneous vasodilation and sweating in young adults: roles for K Ca, K ATP, and K V channels, nitric oxide, and prostanoids. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2017; 42:470-478. [PMID: 28177721 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2016-0615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated the influence of K+ channels (i.e., Ca2+-activated K+ (KCa), ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP), and voltage-gated K+ (KV) channels) and key enzymes (nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)) on nicotine-induced cutaneous vasodilation and sweating. Using intradermal microdialysis, we evaluated forearm cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) and sweat rate in 2 separate protocols. In protocol 1 (n = 10), 4 separate sites were infused with (i) lactated Ringer (Control), (ii) 50 mmol·L-1 tetraethylammonium (KCa channel blocker), (iii) 5 mmol·L-1 glybenclamide (KATP channel blocker), and (iv) 10 mmol·L-1 4-aminopyridine (KV channel blocker). In protocol 2 (n = 10), 4 sites were infused with (i) lactated Ringer (Control), (ii) 10 mmol·L-1 Nω-nitro-l-arginine (NOS inhibitor), (iii) 10 mmol·L-1 ketorolac (COX inhibitor), or (iv) a combination of NOS+COX inhibitors. At all sites, nicotine was infused in a dose-dependent manner (1.2, 3.6, 11, 33, and 100 mmol·L-1; each for 25 min). Nicotine-induced increase in CVC was attenuated by the KCa, KATP, and KV channel blockers, whereas nicotine-induced increase in sweat rate was reduced by the KCa and KV channel blockers (P ≤ 0.05). COX inhibitor augmented nicotine-induced increase in CVC (P ≤ 0.05), which was absent when NOS inhibitor was co-administered (P > 0.05). In addition, our secondrary experiment (n = 7) demonstrated that muscarinic receptor blockade with 58 μmol·L-1 atropine sulfate salt monohydrate abolished nicotine-induced increases in CVC (1.2-11 mmol·L-1) and sweating (all doses). We show that under a normothermic resting state: (i) KCa, KATP, and KV channels contribute to nicotinic cutaneous vasodilation, (ii) inhibition of COX augments nicotinic cutaneous vasodilation likely through NOS-dependent mechanism(s), and (iii) KCa and KV channels contribute to nicotinic sweating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoto Fujii
- a Human and Environmental Physiology Research Unit, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Jeffrey C Louie
- a Human and Environmental Physiology Research Unit, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Brendan D McNeely
- a Human and Environmental Physiology Research Unit, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Tatsuro Amano
- b Laboratory for Exercise and Environmental Physiology, Faculty of Education, Niigata University, Japan
| | - Takeshi Nishiyasu
- c Institute of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba City, Japan
| | - Glen P Kenny
- a Human and Environmental Physiology Research Unit, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Sturgeon RM, Magoski NS. Diacylglycerol-mediated regulation of Aplysia bag cell neuron excitability requires protein kinase C. J Physiol 2016; 594:5573-92. [PMID: 27198498 DOI: 10.1113/jp272152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS In Aplysia, reproduction is initiated by the bag cell neurons and a prolonged period of enhanced excitability known as the afterdischarge. Phosphoinositide turnover is upregulated during the afterdischarge resulting in the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate by phospholipase C (PLC) and the release of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3 ). In whole-cell voltage-clamped cultured bag cell neurons, 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), a synthetic DAG analogue, activates a dose-dependent, transient, inward current (IOAG ) that is enhanced by IP3 , mimicked by PLC activation and dependent on basal protein kinase C (PKC) activity. OAG depolarizes bag cell neurons and triggers action potential firing in culture, and prolongs electrically stimulated afterdischarges in intact bag cell neuron clusters ex vivo. Although PKC alone cannot activate the current, it is required for IOAG ; this is the first description of required obligate PKC activity working in concert with PLC, DAG and IP3 to maintain the depolarization required for prolonged excitability in Aplysia reproduction. ABSTRACT Following synaptic input, the bag cell neurons of Aplysia undergo a long-term afterdischarge of action potentials to secrete egg-laying hormone and initiate reproduction. Early in the afterdischarge, phospholipase C (PLC) hydrolyses phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate into inositol trisphosphate (IP3 ) and diacylglycerol (DAG). In Aplysia, little is known about the action of DAG, or any interaction with IP3 ; thus, we examined the effects of a synthetic DAG analogue, 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), on whole-cell voltage-clamped cultured bag cell neurons. OAG induced a large, prolonged, Ca(2+) -permeable, concentration-dependent inward current (IOAG ) that reversed at ∼-20 mV and was enhanced by intracellular IP3 . A similar current was evoked by either another DAG analogue, 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (DOG), or activating PLC with N-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamide (m-3M3FBS). IOAG was reduced by the general cation channel blockers Gd(3+) or flufenamic acid. Work in other systems indicated that OAG activates channels independently of protein kinase C (PKC); however, we found pretreating bag cell neurons with any of the PKC inhibitors bisindolylmaleimide, sphinganine, or H7, attenuated IOAG . However, stimulating PKC with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) did not evoke current or enhance IOAG ; moreover, unlike PMA, OAG failed to trigger PKC, as confirmed by an independent bioassay. Finally, OAG or m-3M3FBS depolarized cultured neurons, and while OAG did not provoke afterdischarges from bag cell neurons in the nervous system, it did double the duration of synaptically elicited afterdischarges. To our knowledge, this is the first report of obligate PKC activity for IOAG gating. An interaction between phosphoinositol metabolites and PKC could control the cation channel to influence afterdischarge duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond M Sturgeon
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada, K7L 3N6
| | - Neil S Magoski
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada, K7L 3N6.
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White SH, Sturgeon RM, Magoski NS. Nicotine inhibits potassium currents in Aplysia bag cell neurons. J Neurophysiol 2016; 115:2635-48. [PMID: 26864763 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00816.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetylcholine and the archetypal cholinergic agonist, nicotine, are typically associated with the opening of ionotropic receptors. In the bag cell neurons, which govern the reproductive behavior of the marine snail, Aplysia californica, there are two cholinergic responses: a relatively large acetylcholine-induced current and a relatively small nicotine-induced current. Both currents are readily apparent at resting membrane potential and result from the opening of distinct ionotropic receptors. We now report a separate current response elicited by applying nicotine to cultured bag cell neurons under whole cell voltage-clamp. This current was ostensibly inward, best resolved at depolarized voltages, presented a noncooperative dose-response with a half-maximal concentration near 1.5 mM, and associated with a decrease in membrane conductance. The unique nicotine-evoked response was not altered by intracellular perfusion with the G protein blocker GDPβS or exposure to classical nicotinic antagonists but was occluded by replacing intracellular K(+) with Cs(+) Consistent with an underlying mechanism of direct inhibition of one or more K(+) channels, nicotine was found to rapidly reduce the fast-inactivating A-type K(+) current as well as both components of the delayed-rectifier K(+) current. Finally, nicotine increased bag cell neuron excitability, which manifested as reduction in spike threshold, greater action potential height and width, and markedly more spiking to continuous depolarizing current injection. In contrast to conventional transient activation of nicotinic ionotropic receptors, block of K(+) channels could represent a nonstandard means for nicotine to profoundly alter the electrical properties of neurons over prolonged periods of time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean H White
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Raymond M Sturgeon
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Neil S Magoski
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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Dargaei Z, Colmers PLW, Hodgson HM, Magoski NS. Electrical coupling between Aplysia bag cell neurons: characterization and role in synchronous firing. J Neurophysiol 2014; 112:2680-96. [PMID: 25185820 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00494.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In neuroendocrine cells, hormone release often requires a collective burst of action potentials synchronized by gap junctions. This is the case for the electrically coupled bag cell neurons in the reproductive system of the marine snail, Aplysia californica. These neuroendocrine cells are found in two clusters, and fire a synchronous burst, called the afterdischarge, resulting in neuropeptide secretion and the triggering of ovulation. However, the physiology and pharmacology of the bag cell neuron electrical synapse are not completely understood. As such, we made dual whole cell recordings from pairs of electrically coupled cultured bag cell neurons. The junctional current was nonrectifying and not influenced by postsynaptic voltage. Furthermore, junctional conductance was voltage independent and, not surprisingly, strongly correlated with coupling coefficient magnitude. The electrical synapse also acted as a low-pass filter, although under certain conditions, electrotonic potentials evoked by presynaptic action potentials could drive postsynaptic spikes. If coupled neurons were stimulated to spike simultaneously, they presented a high degree of action potential synchrony compared with not-coupled neurons. The electrical synapse failed to pass various intracellular dyes, but was permeable to Cs(+), and could be inhibited by niflumic acid, meclofenamic acid, or 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid. Finally, extracellular and sharp-electrode recording from the intact bag cell neuron cluster showed that these pharmacological uncouplers disrupted both electrical coupling and afterdischarge generation in situ. Thus electrical synapses promote bag cell neuron firing synchrony and may allow for electrotonic spread of the burst through the network, ultimately contributing to propagation of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Dargaei
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Phillip L W Colmers
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Heather M Hodgson
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Neil S Magoski
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Physiology Graduate Program, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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