Calcium-permeable AMPA receptors mediate glutamatergic signaling in neural precursor cells of the postnatal olfactory bulb

Fast-spiking interneuron detonation drives high-fidelity inhibition in the olfactory bulb

Inhibitory circuits in the mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) dynamically reformat olfactory information as it propagates from peripheral receptors to downstream cortex. To gain mechanistic insight into how specific OB interneuron types support this sensory processing, we examine unitary synaptic interactions between excitatory mitral and tufted cells (MTCs), the OB projection neurons, and a conserved population of anaxonic external plexiform layer interneurons (EPL-INs) using pair and quartet whole-cell recordings in acute mouse brain slices. Physiological, morphological, neurochemical, and synaptic analyses divide EPL-INs into distinct subtypes and reveal that parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking EPL-INs (FSIs) perisomatically innervate MTCs with release-competent dendrites and synaptically detonate to mediate fast, short-latency recurrent and lateral inhibition. Sparse MTC synchronization supralinearly increases this high-fidelity inhibition, while sensory afferent activation combined with single-cell silencing reveals that individual FSIs account for a substantial fraction of total network-driven MTC lateral inhibition. OB output is thus powerfully shaped by detonation-driven high-fidelity perisomatic inhibition.

Fast-spiking interneuron detonation drives high-fidelity inhibition in the olfactory bulb

Inhibitory circuits in the mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) dynamically reformat olfactory information as it propagates from peripheral receptors to downstream cortex. To gain mechanistic insight into how specific OB interneuron types support this sensory processing, we examine unitary synaptic interactions between excitatory mitral and tufted cells (MTCs), the OB projection cells, and a conserved population of anaxonic external plexiform layer interneurons (EPL-INs) using pair and quartet whole-cell recordings in acute mouse brain slices. Physiological, morphological, neurochemical, and synaptic analyses divide EPL-INs into distinct subtypes and reveal that parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking EPL-INs (FSIs) perisomatically innervate MTCs with release-competent dendrites and synaptically detonate to mediate fast, short-latency recurrent and lateral inhibition. Sparse MTC synchronization supralinearly increases this high-fidelity inhibition, while sensory afferent activation combined with single-cell silencing reveals that individual FSIs account for a substantial fraction of total network-driven MTC lateral inhibition. OB output is thus powerfully shaped by detonation-driven high-fidelity perisomatic inhibition.

Emerging intersections between neuroscience and glioma biology

The establishment of neuronal and glial networks in the brain depends on the activities of neural progenitors, which are influenced by cell-intrinsic mechanisms, interactions with the local microenvironment and long-range signaling. Progress in neuroscience has helped identify key factors in CNS development. In parallel, studies in recent years have increased our understanding of molecular and cellular factors in the development and growth of primary brain tumors. To thrive, glioma cells exploit pathways that are active in normal CNS progenitor cells, as well as in normal neurotransmitter signaling. Furthermore, tumor cells of incurable gliomas integrate into communicating multicellular networks, where they are interconnected through neurite-like cellular protrusions. In this Review, we discuss evidence that CNS development, organization and function share a number of common features with glioma progression and malignancy. These include mechanisms used by cells to proliferate and migrate, interact with their microenvironment and integrate into multicellular networks. The emerging intersections between the fields of neuroscience and neuro-oncology considered in this review point to new research directions and novel therapeutic opportunities.

Zinc as a Neuromodulator in the Central Nervous System with a Focus on the Olfactory Bulb

The olfactory bulb (OB) is central to the sense of smell, as it is the site of the first synaptic relay involved in the processing of odor information. Odor sensations are first transduced by olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) before being transmitted, by way of the OB, to higher olfactory centers that mediate olfactory discrimination and perception. Zinc is a common trace element, and it is highly concentrated in the synaptic vesicles of subsets of glutamatergic neurons in some brain regions including the hippocampus and OB. In addition, zinc is contained in the synaptic vesicles of some glycinergic and GABAergic neurons. Thus, zinc released from synaptic vesicles is available to modulate synaptic transmission mediated by excitatory (e.g., N-methyl-D aspartate (NMDA), alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)) and inhibitory (e.g., gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine) amino acid receptors. Furthermore, extracellular zinc can alter the excitability of neurons through effects on a variety of voltage-gated ion channels. Consistent with the notion that zinc acts as a regulator of neuronal activity, we and others have shown zinc modulation (inhibition and/or potentiation) of amino acid receptors and voltage-gated ion channels expressed by OB neurons. This review summarizes the locations and release of vesicular zinc in the central nervous system (CNS), including in the OB. It also summarizes the effects of zinc on various amino acid receptors and ion channels involved in regulating synaptic transmission and neuronal excitability, with a special emphasis on the actions of zinc as a neuromodulator in the OB. An understanding of how neuroactive substances such as zinc modulate receptors and ion channels expressed by OB neurons will increase our understanding of the roles that synaptic circuits in the OB play in odor information processing and transmission.

Ketamine alters the neurogenesis of rat cortical neural stem progenitor cells

OBJECTIVE

High doses or prolonged exposure to ketamine increase neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain, although effects on neural stem progenitor cells remain unexplored. This study investigated dose- and time-dependent responses to ketamine on cell death and neurogenesis in cultured rat fetal cortical neural stem progenitor cells.

DESIGN

Laboratory-based study.

SETTING

University research laboratory.

SUBJECT

Sprague-Dawley rats.

INTERVENTIONS

Neural stem progenitor cells were isolated from the cortex of Sprague-Dawley rat fetuses on embryonic day 17. In dose-response experiments, cultured neural stem progenitor cells were exposed to different concentrations of ketamine (0-100 µM) for 24 hrs. In time-course experiments, neural stem progenitor cells cultures were exposed to 10 µM ketamine for different durations (0-48 hrs).

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Apoptosis and necrosis in neural stem progenitor cells were assessed using activated caspase-3 immunostaining and lactate dehydrogenase assays, respectively. Proliferative changes in neural stem progenitor cells were detected using bromo-deoxyuridine incorporation and Ki67 immunostaining. Neuronal differentiation was assessed using Tuj-1 immunostaining. Cultured neural stem progenitor cells were resistant to apoptosis and necrosis following all concentrations and durations of ketamine exposure tested. Ketamine inhibited proliferation with decreased numbers of bromo-deoxyuridine-positive cells following ketamine exposure to 100 µM for 24 hrs (p<.005) or 10 µM for 48 hrs (p< .01), and reduced numbers of Ki67-positive cells following exposure to ketamine concentration>10 µM for 24 hrs (p<.001) or at 10 µM for 48 hrs (p<.01). Ketamine enhanced neuronal differentiation, with all ketamine concentrations increasing Tuj-1-positive neurons (p<.001) after 24-hrs of exposure. This also occurred with all exposures to 10 µM ketamine for >8 hrs (p<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Clinically relevant concentrations of ketamine do not induce cell death in neural stem progenitor cells via apoptosis or necrosis. Ketamine alters the proliferation and increases the neuronal differentiation of neural stem progenitor cells isolated from the rat neocortex. These studies imply that ketamine exposure during fetal or neonatal life may alter neurogenesis and subsequent brain development.

Dynamic development of the first synapse impinging on adult-born neurons in the olfactory bulb circuit

The olfactory bulb (OB) receives and integrates newborn interneurons throughout life. This process is important for the proper functioning of the OB circuit and consequently, for the sense of smell. Although we know how these new interneurons are produced, the way in which they integrate into the pre-existing ongoing circuits remains poorly documented. Bearing in mind that glutamatergic inputs onto local OB interneurons are crucial for adjusting the level of bulbar inhibition, it is important to characterize when and how these inputs from excitatory synapses develop on newborn OB interneurons. We studied early synaptic events that lead to the formation and maturation of the first glutamatergic synapses on adult-born granule cells (GCs), the most abundant subtype of OB interneuron. Patch-clamp recordings and electron microscopy (EM) analysis were performed on adult-born interneurons shortly after their arrival in the adult OB circuits. We found that both the ratio of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) to α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR), and the number of functional release sites at proximal inputs reached a maximum during the critical period for the sensory-dependent survival of newborn cells, well before the completion of dendritic arborization. EM analysis showed an accompanying change in postsynaptic density shape during the same period of time. Interestingly, the latter morphological changes disappeared in more mature newly-formed neurons, when the NMDAR to AMPAR ratio had decreased and functional presynaptic terminals expressed only single release sites. Together, these findings show that the first glutamatergic inputs to adult-generated OB interneurons undergo a unique sequence of maturation stages.