Changes in taste receptor cell [Ca2+]i modulate chorda tympani responses to salty and sour taste stimuli

Preparation and application of taste bud organoids in biomedicine towards chemical sensation mechanisms

Taste is one of the most basic and important sensations that is able to monitor the food quality and avoid intake of potential danger materials. Whether as an inevitable symptom of aging or a complication of cancer treatment, taste loss very seriously affects the patient's life quality. Taste bud organoids provide an alternative and convenient approach for the research of taste functions and the underlying mechanisms due to their characteristics of availability, strong maneuverability, and high similarity to the in-vivo taste buds. This review gives a systemic and comprehensive introduction to the preparation and application of taste bud organoids towards chemical sensing mechanisms. For the first, the basic structure and functions of taste buds will be briefly introduced. Then, the currently available approaches for the preparation of taste bud organoids are summarized and discussed, which are mainly divided into two categories, i.e. the stem/progenitor cell-derived approach and the tissue-derived approach. For the next, different applications of taste bud organoids in biomedicine are outlined based on their central roles such as disease modeling, biological sensing, gene regulation, and signal transduction. Finally, the current challenges, future development trends and prospects of research in taste bud organoids are proposed and discussed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Otopetrin-1: A sour-tasting proton channel

Ramsey and DeSimone highlight the recent discovery of a new family of proton channels.

Participation of the peripheral taste system in aging-dependent changes in taste sensitivity

Previous studies have shown that aging modifies taste sensitivity. However, the factors affecting the changes in taste sensitivity remain unclear. To investigate the cause of the age-related changes in taste sensitivity, we compared the peripheral taste detection systems in young and old mice. First, we examined whether taste sensitivity varied according to age using behavioral assays. We confirmed that the taste sensitivities to salty and bitter tastes decreased with aging. In other assays, the gustatory nerve responses to salty and sweet tastes increased significantly with aging, while those to bitter taste did not change. Thus, the profile of the gustatory nerve responses was inconsistent with the profile of the behavioral responses. Next, we evaluated the expressions of taste-related molecules in the taste buds. Although no apparent differences in the expressions of representative taste receptors were observed between the two age groups, the mRNA expressions of signaling effectors were slightly, but significantly, decreased in old mice. No significant differences in the turnover rates of taste bud cells were observed between the two age groups. Thus, we did not observe any large decreases in the expressions of taste-related molecules and turnover rates of taste bud cells with aging. Based on these findings, we conclude that changes in taste sensitivity with aging were not caused by aging-related degradation of peripheral taste organs. Meanwhile, the concentrations of several serum components that modify taste responses changed with age. Thus, taste signal-modifying factors such as serum components may have a contributing role in aging-related changes in taste sensitivity.

Influx-Operated Ca(2+) Entry via PKD2-L1 and PKD1-L3 Channels Facilitates Sensory Responses to Polymodal Transient Stimuli

The polycystic TRP subfamily member PKD2-L1, in complex with PKD1-L3, is involved in physiological responses to diverse stimuli. A major challenge to understanding whether and how PKD2-L1/PKD1-L3 acts as a bona fide molecular transducer is that recombinant channels usually respond with small or undetectable currents. Here, we discover a type of Ca(2+) influx-operated Ca(2+) entry (ICE) that generates pronounced Ca(2+) spikes. Triggered by rapid onset/offset of Ca(2+), voltage, or acid stimuli, Ca(2+)-dependent activation amplifies a small Ca(2+) influx via the channel. Ca(2+) concurrently drives a self-limiting negative feedback (Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation) that is regulated by the Ca(2+)-binding EF hands of PKD2-L1. Our results suggest a biphasic ICE with opposite Ca(2+) feedback regulation that facilitates sensory responses to multimodal transient stimuli. We suggest that such a mechanism may also occur for other sensory modalities and other Ca(2+) channels.

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) Dependent Chorda Tympani Taste Nerve Responses to Nicotine, Ethanol and Acetylcholine

Nicotine elicits bitter taste by activating TRPM5-dependent and TRPM5-independent but neuronal nAChR-dependent pathways. The nAChRs represent common targets at which acetylcholine, nicotine and ethanol functionally interact in the central nervous system. Here, we investigated if the nAChRs also represent a common pathway through which the bitter taste of nicotine, ethanol and acetylcholine is transduced. To this end, chorda tympani (CT) taste nerve responses were monitored in rats, wild-type mice and TRPM5 knockout (KO) mice following lingual stimulation with nicotine free base, ethanol, and acetylcholine, in the absence and presence of nAChR agonists and antagonists. The nAChR modulators: mecamylamine, dihydro-β-erythroidine, and CP-601932 (a partial agonist of the α3β4* nAChR), inhibited CT responses to nicotine, ethanol, and acetylcholine. CT responses to nicotine and ethanol were also inhibited by topical lingual application of 8-chlorophenylthio (CPT)-cAMP and loading taste cells with [Ca²⁺]_i by topical lingual application of ionomycin + CaCl₂. In contrast, CT responses to nicotine were enhanced when TRC [Ca²⁺]_i was reduced by topical lingual application of BAPTA-AM. In patch-clamp experiments, only a subset of isolated rat fungiform taste cells exposed to nicotine responded with an increase in mecamylamine-sensitive inward currents. We conclude that nAChRs expressed in a subset of taste cells serve as common receptors for the detection of the TRPM5-independent bitter taste of nicotine, acetylcholine and ethanol.

Regulatory Effects of Ca2+ and H+ on the Rat Chorda Tympani Response to NaCl and KCl

Modulatory effects of pHi and [Ca(2+)]i on taste receptor cell (TRC) epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) were investigated by monitoring chorda tympani (CT) responses to NaCl and KCl at various lingual voltages, before and after lingual application of ionomycin and with 0-10mM CaCl2 in the stimulus and rinse solutions adjusted to pHo 2.0-9.7. 0.1 and 0.5M KCl responses varied continuously with voltage and were fitted to an apical ion channel kinetic model using the same parameters. ENaC-dependent NaCl CT response was fitted to the same channel model but with parameters characteristic of ENaC. A graded increase in TRC [Ca(2+)]i decreased the ENaC-dependent NaCl CT response, and inhibited and ultimately eliminated its pH sensitivity. CT responses to KCl were pHi- and [Ca(2+)]i-independent. Between ±60 mV applied lingual potential, the data were well described by a linear approximation to the nonlinear channel equation and yielded 2 parameters, the open-circuit response and the negative of the slope of the line in the CT response versus voltage plot, designated the response conductance. The ENaC-dependent NaCl CT response conductance was a linear function of the open-circuit response for all pHi-[Ca(2+)]i combinations examined. Analysis of these data shows that pHi and [Ca(2+)]i regulate TRC ENaC exclusively through modulation of the maximum CT response.

Effect of ENaC modulators on rat neural responses to NaCl

The effects of small molecule ENaC activators N,N,N-trimethyl-2-((4-methyl-2-((4-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)thio)pentanoyl)oxy)ethanaminium iodide (Compound 1) and N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methyl-2-((4-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)thio)pentanamide (Compound 2), were tested on the benzamil (Bz)-sensitive NaCl chorda tympani (CT) taste nerve response under open-circuit conditions and under ±60 mV applied lingual voltage-clamp, and compared with the effects of known physiological activators (8-CPT-cAMP, BAPTA-AM, and alkaline pH), and an inhibitor (ionomycin+Ca²⁺) of ENaC. The NaCl CT response was enhanced at −60 mV and suppressed at +60 mV. In every case the CT response (r) versus voltage (V) curve was linear. All ENaC activators increased the open-circuit response (r_o) and the voltage sensitivity (κ, negative of the slope of the r versus V curve) and ionomycin+Ca²⁺ decreased r_o and κ to zero. Compound 1 and Compound 2 expressed a sigmoidal-saturating function of concentration (0.25–1 mM) with a half-maximal response concentration (k) of 0.49 and 1.05 mM, respectively. Following treatment with 1 mM Compound 1, 8-CPT-cAMP, BAPTA-AM and pH 10.3, the Bz-sensitive NaCl CT response to 100 mM NaCl was enhanced and was equivalent to the Bz-sensitive CT response to 300 mM NaCl. Plots of κ versus r_o in the absence and presence of the activators or the inhibitor were linear, suggesting that changes in the affinity of Na⁺ for ENaC under different conditions are fully compensated by changes in the apical membrane potential difference, and that the observed changes in the Bz-sensitive NaCl CT response arise exclusively from changes in the maximum CT response (r_m). The results further suggest that the agonists enhance and ionomycin+Ca²⁺ decreases ENaC function by increasing or decreasing the rate of release of Na⁺ from its ENaC binding site to the receptor cell cytosol, respectively. Irrespective of agonist type, the Bz-sensitive NaCl CT response demonstrated a maximum response enhancement limit of about 75% over control value.

Diet-induced obesity reduces the responsiveness of the peripheral taste receptor cells

Introduction

Obesity is a growing epidemic that causes many serious health related complications. While the causes of obesity are complex, there is conclusive evidence that overconsumption coupled with a sedentary lifestyle is the primary cause of this medical condition. Dietary consumption is controlled by appetite which is in turn regulated by multiple neuronal systems, including the taste system. However, the relationship between taste and obesity has not been well defined. Growing evidence suggests that taste perception in the brain is altered in obese animals and humans, however no studies have determined if there are altered taste responses in the peripheral taste receptor cells, which is the initiation site for the detection and perception of taste stimuli.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study, we used C57Bl/6 mice which readily become obese when placed on a high fat diet. After ten weeks on the high fat diet, we used calcium imaging to measure how taste-evoked calcium signals were affected in the obese mice. We found that significantly fewer taste receptor cells were responsive to some appetitive taste stimuli while the numbers of taste cells that were sensitive to aversive taste stimuli did not change. Properties of the taste-evoked calcium signals were also significantly altered in the obese mice. Behavioral analyses found that mice on the high fat diet had reduced ability to detect some taste stimuli compared to their littermate controls.

Conclusions/Significance

Our findings demonstrate that diet-induced obesity significantly influences peripheral taste receptor cell signals which likely leads to changes in the central taste system and may cause altered taste perception.

TRPM5-dependent amiloride- and benzamil-insensitive NaCl chorda tympani taste nerve response

Transient receptor potential (TRP) subfamily M member 5 (TRPM5) cation channel is involved in sensing sweet, bitter, umami, and fat taste stimuli, complex-tasting divalent salts, and temperature-induced changes in sweet taste. To investigate if the amiloride- and benzamil (Bz)-insensitive NaCl chorda tympani (CT) taste nerve response is also regulated in part by TRPM5, CT responses to 100 mM NaCl + 5 μM Bz (NaCl + Bz) were monitored in Sprague-Dawley rats, wild-type (WT) mice, and TRP vanilloid subfamily member 1 (TRPV1) and TRPM5 knockout (KO) mice in the presence of resiniferatoxin (RTX), a TRPV1 agonist. In rats, NaCl + Bz + RTX CT responses were also monitored in the presence of triphenylphosphine oxide, a specific TRPM5 blocker, and capsazepine and N-(3-methoxyphenyl)-4-chlorocinnamid (SB-366791), specific TRPV1 blockers. In rats and WT mice, RTX produced biphasic effects on the NaCl + Bz CT response, enhancing the response at 0.5-1 μM and inhibiting it at >1 μM. The NaCl + Bz + SB-366791 CT response in rats and WT mice and the NaCl + Bz CT response in TRPV1 KO mice were inhibited to baseline level and were RTX-insensitive. In rats, blocking TRPV1 by capsazepine or TRPM5 by triphenylphosphine oxide inhibited the tonic NaCl + Bz CT response and shifted the relationship between RTX concentration and the magnitude of the tonic CT response to higher RTX concentrations. TRPM5 KO mice elicited no constitutive NaCl + Bz tonic CT response. The relationship between RTX concentration and the magnitude of the tonic NaCl + Bz CT response was significantly attenuated and shifted to higher RTX concentrations. The results suggest that pharmacological or genetic alteration of TRPM5 activity modulates the Bz-insensitive NaCl CT response and its modulation by TRPV1 agonists.

Spices: the savory and beneficial science of pungency

Spicy food does not only provide an important hedonic input in daily life, but has also been anedoctically associated to beneficial effects on our health. In this context, the discovery of chemesthetic trigeminal receptors and their spicy ligands has provided the mechanistic basis and the pharmacological means to investigate this enticing possibility. This review discusses in molecular terms the connection between the neurophysiology of pungent spices and the "systemic" effects associated to their trigeminality. It commences with a cultural and historical overview on the Western fascination for spices, and, after analysing in detail the mechanisms underlying the trigeminality of food, the main dietary players from the transient receptor potential (TRP) family of cation channels are introduced, also discussing the "alien" distribution of taste receptors outside the oro-pharingeal cavity. The modulation of TRPV1 and TRPA1 by spices is next described, discussing how spicy sensations can be turned into hedonic pungency, and analyzing the mechanistic bases for the health benefits that have been associated to the consumption of spices. These include, in addition to a beneficial modulation of gastro-intestinal and cardio-vascular function, slimming, the optimization of skeletal muscle performance, the reduction of chronic inflammation, and the prevention of metabolic syndrome and diabetes. We conclude by reviewing the role of electrophilic spice constituents on cancer prevention in the light of their action on pro-inflammatory and pro-cancerogenic nuclear factors like NFκB, and on their interaction with the electrophile sensor protein Keap1 and the ensuing Nrf2-mediated transcriptional activity. Spicy compounds have a complex polypharmacology, and just like any other bioactive agent, show a balance of beneficial and bad actions. However, at least for moderate consumption, the balance seems definitely in favour of the positive side, suggesting that a spicy diet, a caveman-era technology, could be seriously considered in addition to caloric control and exercise as a measurement to prevent and control many chronic diseases associate to malnutrition from a Western diet.

Changes in taste receptor cell [Ca2+]i modulate chorda tympani responses to bitter, sweet, and umami taste stimuli

The relationship between taste receptor cell (TRC) intracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](i)) and rat chorda tympani (CT) nerve responses to bitter (quinine and denatonium), sweet (sucrose, glycine, and erythritol), and umami [monosodium glutamate (MSG) and MSG + inosine 5'-monophosphate (IMP)] taste stimuli was investigated before and after lingual application of ionomycin (Ca(2+) ionophore) + Ca(2+), 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid acetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA-AM; Ca(2+) chelator), U73122 (phospholipase C blocker), thapsigargin (Ca(2+)-ATPase blocker), and diC8-PIP(2) (synthetic phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate). The phasic CT response to quinine was indifferent to changes in [Ca(2+)](i). However, a decrease in [Ca(2+)](i) inhibited the tonic part of the CT response to quinine. The CT responses to sweet and umami stimuli were indifferent to changes in TRC [Ca(2+)](i). However, a decrease in [Ca(2+)](i) attenuated the synergistic effects of ethanol on the CT response to sweet stimuli and of IMP on the glutamate CT response. U73122 and thapsigargin inhibited the phasic and tonic CT responses to bitter, sweet, and umami stimuli. Although diC8-PIP(2) increased the CT response to bitter and sweet stimuli, it did not alter the CT response to glutamate but did inhibit the synergistic effect of IMP on the glutamate response. The results suggest that bitter, sweet, and umami taste qualities are transduced by [Ca(2+)](i)-dependent and [Ca(2+)](i)-independent mechanisms. Changes in TRC [Ca(2+)](i) in the BAPTA-sensitive cytosolic compartment regulate quality-specific taste receptors and ion channels that are involved in the neural adaptation and mixture interactions. Changes in TRC [Ca(2+)](i) in a separate subcompartment, sensitive to inositol trisphosphate and thapsigargin but inaccessible to BAPTA and ionomycin + Ca(2+), are associated with neurotransmitter release.