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Cristancho Ortiz CJ, de Freitas Silva M, Pruccoli L, Fonseca Nadur N, de Azevedo LL, Kümmerle AE, Guedes IA, Dardenne LE, Leomil Coelho LF, Guimarães MJ, da Silva FMR, Castro N, Gontijo VS, Rojas VCT, de Oliveira MK, Vilela FC, Giusti-Paiva A, Barbosa G, Lima LM, Pinheiro GB, Veras LG, Mortari MR, Tarozzi A, Viegas C. Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of new thalidomide-donepezil hybrids as neuroprotective agents targeting cholinesterases and neuroinflammation. RSC Med Chem 2022; 13:568-584. [PMID: 35694691 PMCID: PMC9132228 DOI: 10.1039/d1md00374g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A new series of eight multifunctional thalidomide-donepezil hybrids were synthesized based on the multi-target-directed ligand strategy and evaluated as potential neuroprotective, cholinesterase inhibitors and anti-neuroinflammatory agents against neurodegenerative diseases. A molecular hybridization approach was used for structural design by combining the N-benzylpiperidine pharmacophore of donepezil and the isoindoline-1,3-dione fragment from the thalidomide structure. The most promising compound, PQM-189 (3g), showed good AChE inhibitory activity with an IC50 value of 3.15 μM, which was predicted by docking studies as interacting with the enzyme in the same orientation observed in the AChE-donepezil complex and a similar profile of interaction. Additionally, compound 3g significantly decreased iNOS and IL-1β levels by 43% and 39%, respectively, after 24 h of incubation with lipopolysaccharide. In vivo data confirmed the ability of 3g to prevent locomotor impairment and changes in feeding behavior elicited by lipopolysaccharide. Moreover, the PAMPA assay evidenced adequate blood-brain barrier and gastrointestinal tract permeabilities with an Fa value of 69.8%. Altogether, these biological data suggest that compound 3g can treat the inflammatory process and oxidative stress resulting from the overexpression of iNOS and therefore the increase in reactive nitrogen species, and regulate the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β. In this regard, compound PQM-189 (3g) was revealed to be a promising neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory agent with an innovative thalidomide-donepezil-based hybrid molecular architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Juliet Cristancho Ortiz
- PeQuiM-Laboratory of Research in Medicinal Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Ave. Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Matheus de Freitas Silva
- PeQuiM-Laboratory of Research in Medicinal Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Ave. Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Letizia Pruccoli
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna'Alma Mater Studiorum' 237 Corso d'Augusto St. 47921 Rimini Italy
| | - Nathália Fonseca Nadur
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Seropédica RJ Brazil
| | - Luciana Luíza de Azevedo
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Seropédica RJ Brazil
| | - Arthur Eugen Kümmerle
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Seropédica RJ Brazil
| | | | | | - Luiz Felipe Leomil Coelho
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Alfenas 700 Gabriel Monteiro da Silva St Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Marcos J Guimarães
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro/RJ Brazil
| | - Fernanda M R da Silva
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro/RJ Brazil
| | - Newton Castro
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro/RJ Brazil
| | - Vanessa Silva Gontijo
- PeQuiM-Laboratory of Research in Medicinal Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Ave. Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Viviana C T Rojas
- Laboratory of Physiology, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Avenue Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Merelym Ketterym de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Physiology, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Avenue Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Fabiana Cardoso Vilela
- Laboratory of Physiology, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Avenue Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Alexandre Giusti-Paiva
- Laboratory of Physiology, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Avenue Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
| | - Gisele Barbosa
- LASSBio - Laboratório de Avaliação e Síntese de Substâncias Bioativas, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro/RJ Brazil
| | - Lídia Moreira Lima
- LASSBio - Laboratório de Avaliação e Síntese de Substâncias Bioativas, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro 21941-902 Rio de Janeiro/RJ Brazil
| | - Gabriela Beserra Pinheiro
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília Brasilia DF 70910-900 Brazil
| | - Letícia Germino Veras
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília Brasilia DF 70910-900 Brazil
| | - Márcia Renata Mortari
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasília Brasilia DF 70910-900 Brazil
| | - Andrea Tarozzi
- PeQuiM-Laboratory of Research in Medicinal Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Ave. Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil .,Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna'Alma Mater Studiorum' 237 Corso d'Augusto St. 47921 Rimini Italy
| | - Claudio Viegas
- PeQuiM-Laboratory of Research in Medicinal Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas 2600 Jovino Fernandes Sales Ave. Alfenas MG 37130-840 Brazil
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Skelly DT, Hennessy E, Dansereau MA, Cunningham C. A systematic analysis of the peripheral and CNS effects of systemic LPS, IL-1β, [corrected] TNF-α and IL-6 challenges in C57BL/6 mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69123. [PMID: 23840908 PMCID: PMC3698075 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is increasingly clear that systemic inflammation has both adaptive and deleterious effects on the brain. However, detailed comparisons of brain effects of systemic challenges with different pro-inflammatory cytokines are lacking. In the present study, we challenged female C57BL/6 mice intraperitoneally with LPS (100 µg/kg), IL-1β (15 or 50 µg/kg), TNF-α (50 or 250 µg/kg) or IL-6 (50 or 125 µg/kg). We investigated effects on core body temperature, open field activity and plasma levels of inflammatory markers at 2 hours post injection. We also examined levels of hepatic, hypothalamic and hippocampal inflammatory cytokine transcripts. Hypothermia and locomotor hypoactivity were induced by LPS>IL-1β>TNF-α>>IL-6. Systemic LPS, IL-1β and TNF-α challenges induced robust and broadly similar systemic and central inflammation compared to IL-6, which showed limited effects, but did induce a hepatic acute phase response. Important exceptions included IFNβ, which could only be induced by LPS. Systemic IL-1β could not induce significant blood TNF-α, but induced CNS TNF-α mRNA, while systemic TNF-α could induce IL-1β in blood and brain. Differences between IL-1β and TNF-α-induced hippocampal profiles, specifically for IL-6 and CXCL1 prompted a temporal analysis of systemic and central responses at 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours, which revealed that IL-1β and TNF-α both induced the chemokines CXCL1 and CCL2 but only IL-1β induced the pentraxin PTX3. Expression of COX-2, CXCL1 and CCL2, with nuclear localisation of the p65 subunit of NFκB, in the cerebrovasculature was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, we used cFOS immunohistochemistry to show that LPS, IL-1β and to a lesser degree, TNF-α activated the central nucleus of the amygdala. Given the increasing attention in the clinical literautre on correlating specific systemic inflammatory mediators with neurological or neuropsychiatric conditions and complications, these data will provide a useful resource on the likely CNS inflammatory profiles resulting from systemic elevation of particular cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donal T. Skelly
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
| | - Edel Hennessy
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
| | - Marc-Andre Dansereau
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
| | - Colm Cunningham
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
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Chang CH, Huang WT, Kao CH, Chen SH, Lin CH. Tetramethylpyrazine decreases hypothalamic glutamate, hydroxyl radicals and prostaglandin-E2 and has antipyretic effects. Inflamm Res 2013; 62:527-35. [PMID: 23525659 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-013-0606-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We studied the effects of tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) on the fever, increased plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and increased hypothalamic levels of glutamate, hydroxyl radicals and prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). MATERIALS AND METHODS The microdialysis probes were stereotaxically and chronically implanted into the hypothalamus of rabbit brain for determining extracellular levels of glutamate, hydroxyl radials, and PGE2. In addition, both the body core temperature and plasma levels of TNF-α were measured. RESULTS All the body core temperature, plasma levels of TNF-α, and hypothalamic levels of glutamate, hydroxyl radicals, and PGE2 were up-graded by an intravenous dose of LPS (2 μg/kg). Pretreatment with intravenous TMP (10-40 mg/kg) or intracerebroventricular TMP (130 μg in 20 μl per animal) 1 h before LPS administration significantly attenuated the LPS-induced fever as well as the increased hypothalamic levels of glutamate, hydroxyl radicals, and PGE2. LPS-induced fever could also be attenuated by intravenous or intracerebroventricular TMP 1 h after LPS injection. CONCLUSION TMP preconditioning may cause its antipyretic action by reducing plasma levels of TNF-α as well as hypothalamic levels of glutamate, hydroxyl radicals, and PGE2 in rabbits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chin-Hong Chang
- Department of Surgery, Chi Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
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Maniscalco JW, Kreisler AD, Rinaman L. Satiation and stress-induced hypophagia: examining the role of hindbrain neurons expressing prolactin-releasing Peptide or glucagon-like Peptide 1. Front Neurosci 2013; 6:199. [PMID: 23346044 PMCID: PMC3549516 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 12/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural circuits distributed within the brainstem, hypothalamus, and limbic forebrain interact to control food intake and energy balance under normal day-to-day conditions, and in response to stressful conditions under which homeostasis is threatened. Experimental studies using rats and mice have generated a voluminous literature regarding the functional organization of circuits that inhibit food intake in response to satiety signals, and in response to stress. Although the central neural bases of satiation and stress-induced hypophagia often are studied and discussed as if they were distinct, we propose that both behavioral states are generated, at least in part, by recruitment of two separate but intermingled groups of caudal hindbrain neurons. One group comprises a subpopulation of noradrenergic (NA) neurons within the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract (cNST; A2 cell group) that is immunopositive for prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP). The second group comprises non-adrenergic neurons within the cNST and nearby reticular formation that synthesize glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). Axonal projections from PrRP and GLP-1 neurons target distributed brainstem and forebrain regions that shape behavioral, autonomic, and endocrine responses to actual or anticipated homeostatic challenge, including the challenge of food intake. Evidence reviewed in this article supports the view that hindbrain PrRP and GLP-1 neurons contribute importantly to satiation and stress-induced hypophagia by modulating the activity of caudal brainstem circuits that control food intake. Hindbrain PrRP and GLP-1 neurons also engage hypothalamic and limbic forebrain networks that drive parallel behavioral and endocrine functions related to food intake and homeostatic challenge, and modulate conditioned and motivational aspects of food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Maniscalco
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Datta G, Gupta H, Zhang Z, Mayakonda P, Anantharamaiah G, White CR. HDL Mimetic Peptide Administration Improves Left Ventricular Filling and Cardiac output in Lipopolysaccharide-Treated Rats. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL & EXPERIMENTAL CARDIOLOGY 2011; 2:1000172. [PMID: 23227448 PMCID: PMC3514969 DOI: 10.4172/2155-9880.1000172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
AIMS: Cardiac dysfunction is a complication of sepsis and contributes to morbidity and mortality. Since raising plasma apolipoprotein (apo) A-I and high density lipoprotein (HDL) concentration reduces sepsis complications, we tested the hypothesis that the apoA-I mimetic peptide 4F confers similar protective effects in rats treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). METHODS AND RESULTS: Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomized to receive saline vehicle (n=13), LPS (10 mg/kg: n=16) or LPS plus 4F (10 mg/kg each: n=13) by intraperitoneal injection. Plasma cytokine and chemokine levels were significantly elevated 24 hrs after LPS administration. Echocardiographic studies revealed changes in cardiac dimensions that resulted in a reduction in left ventricular end-diastolic volume (LVEDV), stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO) 24 hrs after LPS administration. 4F treatment reduced plasma levels of inflammatory mediators and increased LV filling, resulting in improved cardiac performance. Chromatographic separation of lipoproteins from plasma of vehicle, LPS and LPS+4F rats revealed similar profiles. Further analyses showed that LPS treatment reduced the agarose electrophoretic mobility of isolated HDL fractions. HDL-associated proteins were characterized by SDSPAGE and mass spectrometry. ApoA-I and apoA-IV were reduced while apoE content was increased in LPStreated rats. 4F treatment in vivo attenuated changes in HDL-associated apolipoproteins and increased the electrophoretic mobility of the particle. CONCLUSIONS: The ability of 4F to reduce inflammation and improve cardiac performance in LPS-treated rats may be due to its capacity to neutralize endotoxin and prevent adverse changes in HDL composition and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geeta Datta
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Himanshu Gupta
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Zhenghao Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | | | - G.M. Anantharamaiah
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - C. Roger White
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Dai L, Datta G, Zhang Z, Gupta H, Patel R, Honavar J, Modi S, Wyss JM, Palgunachari M, Anantharamaiah GM, White CR. The apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide 4F prevents defects in vascular function in endotoxemic rats. J Lipid Res 2010; 51:2695-705. [PMID: 20495214 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m008086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
High density lipoprotein (HDL) and apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) reduce inflammatory responses to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We tested the hypothesis that the apoA-I mimetic peptide 4F prevents LPS-induced defects in blood pressure and vascular reactivity. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured in rats at baseline and 6 h after injection of LPS (10 mg/kg) or saline vehicle. Subgroups of LPS-treated rats also received 4F (10 mg/kg) or scrambled 4F (Sc-4F). LPS administration reduced SBP by 35% compared with baseline. 4F attenuated the reduction in SBP in LPS-treated rats (17% reduction), while Sc-4F was without effect. Ex vivo studies showed a reduced contractile response to phenylephrine (PE) in aortae of LPS-treated rats (ED(50) = 459 +/- 83 nM) compared with controls (ED(50) = 57 +/- 6 nM). This was associated with nitric oxide synthase 2 (NOS2) upregulation. 4F administration improved vascular contractility (ED(50) = 60 +/- 9 nM), reduced aortic NOS2 protein, normalized plasma levels of NO metabolites, and reduced mortality in LPS-treated rats. These changes were associated with a reduction in plasma endotoxin activity. In vivo administration of (14)C-4F and Bodipy-LPS resulted in their colocalization and retention in the HDL fraction. It is proposed that 4F promotes the localization of LPS to the HDL fraction, resulting in endotoxin neutralization. 4F may thus prevent LPS-induced hemodynamic changes associated with NOS2 induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Dai
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Kis B, Isse T, Snipes JA, Chen L, Yamashita H, Ueta Y, Busija DW. Effects of LPS stimulation on the expression of prostaglandin carriers in the cells of the blood-brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2006; 100:1392-9. [PMID: 16322371 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01259.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostaglandins produced in cerebral endothelial cells (CECs) are the final signal transduction mediators from the periphery to the brain during fever response. However, prostaglandins are organic anions at physiological pH, and they enter cells poorly using simple diffusion. Several transporters have been described that specifically transport prostaglandins across cell membranes. We examined the expression of the two principal prostaglandin carriers, prostaglandin transporter (PGT), and multidrug resistance-associated protein 4 (MRP4) in cells of the blood-brain barrier and in choroid epithelial cells in vitro as well as in vivo in rat brain in control conditions and after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. We detected PGT in primary cultures of rat CECs, astrocytes, pericytes, and choroid epithelial cells. LPS stimulation had no effect on the expression level of PGT in these cells; however, after LPS stimulation the polarized, dominantly luminal, expression pattern of PGT significantly changed. MRP4 is also expressed in CECs, and its level was not influenced by LPS treatment. In rat brain, PGT was highly expressed in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus, in the ependymal cell layer of the third ventricle, and in the choroid plexus. LPS treatment increased the expression of PGT in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. Our results suggest that PGT and MRP4 likely play a role in transporting prostaglandins through the blood-brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers and may be involved in the maintenance of prostaglandin homeostasis in the brain and in the initiation of fever response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bela Kis
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA.
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Kis B, Snipes JA, Busija DW. Acetaminophen and the cyclooxygenase-3 puzzle: sorting out facts, fictions, and uncertainties. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 315:1-7. [PMID: 15879007 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.105.085431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase (COX)-3, a novel COX splice variant, was suggested as the key to unlocking the mystery of the mechanism of action of acetaminophen. Although COX-3 might have COX activity in canines, and this activity might be inhibited by acetaminophen, its low expression level and the kinetics indicate unlikely clinical relevance. In rodents and humans, COX-3 encodes proteins with completely different amino acid sequences than COX-1 or COX-2 and without COX activity; therefore, it is improbable that COX-3 in these species plays a role in prostaglandin-mediated fever and pain. The aim of this review is to evaluate the literature that seeks to point out critical theoretical and methodological limitations of the COX-3 studies that led several investigators to scientifically questionable conclusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bela Kis
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA.
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Grill HJ, Carmody JS, Amanda Sadacca L, Williams DL, Kaplan JM. Attenuation of lipopolysaccharide anorexia by antagonism of caudal brain stem but not forebrain GLP-1-R. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004; 287:R1190-3. [PMID: 15231492 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00163.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The central glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) system has been implicated in the control of feeding behavior. Here we explore GLP-1 mediation of the anorexic response to administration of systemic LPS and address the relative importance of caudal brain stem and forebrain GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1-R) for the mediation of the response. Fourth-intracerebroventricular delivery of the GLP-1-R antagonist exendin-(9-39) (10 microg) did not itself affect food intake in the 24 h after injection but significantly attenuated the otherwise robust (approximately 60%) reduction in food intake obtained after LPS (100 microg/kg) treatment. This result highlights a role for caudal brain stem GLP-1-R in the mediation of LPS anorexia but does not rule out the possibility that forebrain receptors also contribute to the response. Forebrain contribution was addressed by delivery of the GLP-1-R antagonist to the third ventricle with the caudal flow of cerebrospinal fluid blocked by occlusion of the cerebral aqueduct. Exendin-(9-39) delivery thus limited to forebrain did not attenuate the anorexic response to LPS. These data suggest that LPS anorexia is mediated, in part, by release of the native peptide acting on GLP-1-R within the caudal brain stem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harvey J Grill
- Graduate Groups of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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