Effects of bee venom on glutamate-induced toxicity in neuronal and glial cells

Therapeutic Potential of Bee and Scorpion Venom Phospholipase A2 (PLA2): A Narrative Review

Venomous arthropods such as scorpions and bees form one of the important groups with an essential role in medical entomology. Their venom possesses a mixture of diverse compounds, such as peptides, some of which have toxic effects, and enzymatic peptide Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) with a pharmacological potential in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Bee and scorpion venom PLA2 group III has been used in immunotherapy, the treatment of neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. They were assessed for antinociceptive, wound healing, anti-cancer, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, and anti-angiogenesis effects. PLA2 has been identified in different species of scorpions and bees. The anti-leishmania, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-malarial activities of scorpion PLA2 still need further investigation. Many pieces of research have been stopped in the laboratory stage, and several studies need vast investigation in the clinical phase to show the pharmacological potential of PLA2. In this review, the medical significance of PLA2 from the venom of two arthropods, namely bees and scorpions, is discussed.

Bee Venom Alleviates Atopic Dermatitis Symptoms through the Upregulation of Decay-Accelerating Factor (DAF/CD55)

Bee venom (BV)—a complex mixture of peptides and toxic proteins including phospholipase A2 and melittin—promotes blood clotting. In this study, we investigated the anti-atopic properties of BV and the mechanism associated with its regulation of the complement system. BV treatment upregulated the mRNA and protein levels of CD55 in THP-1 cells. Further experiments revealed that the phosphorylation of ERK was associated with upregulation of CD55. A complement-dependent cytotoxicity assay and a bacteria-killing assay showed that BV inactivated the complement system through the induction of CD55. The serum levels of C3 convertase (C3C) and Membrane attack complex (MAC) increased, while CD55 decreased in mice with AD-like lesions from DNCB treatment. However, the levels were inverted when the AD-like mice were treated with BV using subcutaneous injection, and we observed that the AD symptoms were alleviated. BV is often used to treat AD but its mechanism has not been elucidated. Here, we suggest that BV alleviates AD through the inactivation of the complement system, especially by the induction of CD55.

Alzheimer Disease: Clues from traditional and complementary medicine

Despite modern medicine's incredible innovation and resulting accumulation of valuable knowledge, many of the world's most problematic diseases such as Alzheimer Disease (AD) still lack effective cures and treatments. Western medicine has revealed many genetic, cellular, and molecular processes that characterize AD such as protein aggregation and inflammation. As the need for novel and effective treatments increases, researchers have turned towards traditional medicine as a resource. Modern, evidence based research examining traditional and complementary remedies for AD has generated promising results within the last decade. Animal based products inhibiting cellular toxicity, anti-inflammatory nutraceuticals such as omega-3 fatty acids, and plant based compounds derived from herbal medicine demonstrate viability as neuroprotective treatments and possible application in developing pharmaceuticals. Analysis of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective phytochemicals used in various traditional medicines around the world reveal potential to ameliorate and prevent the devastating neurodegeneration observed in AD.

Honey Bee Venom (Apis mellifera) Contains Anticoagulation Factors and Increases the Blood-clotting Time

OBJECTIVES

Bee venom (BV) is a complex mixture of proteins and contains proteins such as phospholipase and melittin, which have an effect on blood clotting and blood clots. The mechanism of action of honey bee venom (HBV, Apis mellifera) on human plasma proteins and its anti-thrombotic effect were studied. The purpose of this study was to investigate the anti-coagulation effect of BV and its effects on blood coagulation and purification.

METHODS

Crude venom obtained from Apis mellifera was selected. The anti-coagulation factor of the crude venom from this species was purified by using gel filtration chromatography (sephadex G-50), and the molecular weights of the anti-coagulants in this venom estimated by using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Blood samples were obtained from 10 rabbits, and the prothrombin time (PT) and the partial thromboplastin time (PTT) tests were conducted. The approximate lethal dose (LD) values of BV were determined.

RESULTS

Crude BV increased the blood clotting time. For BV concentrations from 1 to 4 mg/mL, clotting was not observed even at more than 300 seconds, standard deviations (SDs) = ± 0.71; however, clotting was observed in the control group 13.8 s, SDs = ± 0.52. Thus, BV can be considered as containing anti-coagulation factors. Crude BV is composed 4 protein bands with molecular weights of 3, 15, 20 and 41 kilodalton (kDa), respectively. The LD50 of the crude BV was found to be 177.8 μg/mouse.

CONCLUSION

BV contains anti-coagulation factors. The fraction extracted from the Iranian bees contains proteins that are similar to anti-coagulation proteins, such as phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and melittin, and that can increase the blood clotting times in vitro.

Bee Venom Protects against Rotenone-Induced Cell Death in NSC34 Motor Neuron Cells

Rotenone, an inhibitor of mitochondrial complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, is known to elevate mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and induce apoptosis via activation of the caspase-3 pathway. Bee venom (BV) extracted from honey bees has been widely used in oriental medicine and contains melittin, apamin, adolapin, mast cell-degranulating peptide, and phospholipase A₂. In this study, we tested the effects of BV on neuronal cell death by examining rotenone-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. NSC34 motor neuron cells were pretreated with 2.5 μg/mL BV and stimulated with 10 μM rotenone to induce cell toxicity. We assessed cell death by Western blotting using specific antibodies, such as phospho-ERK1/2, phospho-JNK, and cleaved capase-3 and performed an MTT assay for evaluation of cell death and mitochondria staining. Pretreatment with 2.5 μg/mL BV had a neuroprotective effect against 10 μM rotenone-induced cell death in NSC34 motor neuron cells. Pre-treatment with BV significantly enhanced cell viability and ameliorated mitochondrial impairment in rotenone-treated cellular model. Moreover, BV treatment inhibited the activation of JNK signaling and cleaved caspase-3 related to cell death and increased ERK phosphorylation involved in cell survival in rotenone-treated NSC34 motor neuron cells. Taken together, we suggest that BV treatment can be useful for protection of neurons against oxidative stress or neurotoxin-induced cell death.

Therapeutic Effects of Bee Venom on Immunological and Neurological Diseases

Bee Venom (BV) has long been used in Korea to relieve pain symptoms and to treat inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis. The underlying mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic actions of BV have been proved to some extent. Additionally, recent clinical and experimental studies have demonstrated that BV and BV-derived active components are applicable to a wide range of immunological and neurodegenerative diseases, including autoimmune diseases and Parkinson's disease. These effects of BV are known to be mediated by modulating immune cells in the periphery, and glial cells and neurons in the central nervous system. This review will introduce the scientific evidence of the therapeutic effects of BV and its components on several immunological and neurological diseases, and describe their detailed mechanisms involved in regulating various immune responses and pathological changes in glia and neurons.

Effects of Hominis placenta on LPS-induced cell toxicity in BV2 microglial cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hominis placenta (HP) dried placenta extracted from pregnant women after delivery has been widely used to treat chronic inflammatory diseases. HP has been reported to be effective to alleviate the arthritic symptoms by modulating the expression of inflammatory factors in adjuvant-induced arthritis rats. However, the mechanism of action of HP is unknown. Neuroinflammation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disease, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and amyotropic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Activated microglia produce large amounts of toxic soluble factors, which can be responsible for the neurodegenerative disease. Chronic microglial activation leads to neuroinflammation, which contributes to neuronal dysfunction, injury and loss in these diseases. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is widely used for neuroinflammation caused by microglial activation of immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and subsequent release of inflammatory or neurotoxic factors. In the present study, we investigated the effects and signaling pathway of HP in the LPS induced BV2 microglial cells.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

BV2 microglial cells were pretreated with 50 μM HP for 2h prior to 2 μg/ml LPS for 15 min. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. The level of protein expression was analyzed by western blot. Immunofluorescence was performed with an anti-COX2 antibody in BV2 cells.

RESULTS

HP decreased LPS-induced microglial cell death by 24% and inhibited LPS-induced activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) by 23% and p42/44MAP kinase (ERK) by 34% treatment of LPS. In addition, HP attenuated LPS-induced pro-inflammatory proteins such as iNOS and COX2 in microglial cells 34% and 28% respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data shows that HP has a protective role against LPS stimulation through inhibition of MAPK signaling and suppression of inflammation caused by neurotoxin including LPS. These findings suggest that HP could be a potential therapeutic agent of neurodegenerative diseases which accompanied with microglial activation.

Effects of ginsenoside Re on LPS-induced inflammatory mediators in BV2 microglial cells

BACKGROUND

Microglial activation plays an important role in neurodegenerative diseases by producing several pro-inflammatory enzymes and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation leads to the activation of microglial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and is associated with the pathological mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases, including PD, AD, and ALS. Ginseng is a natural antioxidant used in herbal medicine and contains ginsenosides (Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Re, and Rd), which have anti-neoplastic and anti-stress properties.This study demonstrates the involvement of the anti-inflammatory signaling pathway, ginsenoside-Re (G-Re), which is one of the ginsenosides mediated by LPS-induced neuroinflammation in BV2 microglial cells.

METHODS

BV2 microglial cells were pretreated with 2 μg/ml G-Re and stimulated with 1 μg/ml LPS to induce neuroinflammation. To investigate the effect of G-Re on LPS-induced cell signaling, we performed western blotting and immunofluorescence using specific antibodies, such as phospho-p38, COX2, and iNOS.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with 2 μg/ml G-Re was neuroprotective against 1 μg/ml LPS-treated microglial cells. The neuroprotective events induced by G-Re treatment in neuroinflammation occurred via the phospho-p38, iNOS, and COX2 signaling pathways in BV2 cells.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, we suggest that G-Re exerts a beneficial effect on neuroinflammatory events in neurodegenerative diseases.