Solid-nanoemulsion preconcentrate for oral delivery of paclitaxel: formulation design, biodistribution, and γ scintigraphy imaging

Synthesis and Characterization of Dimeric Artesunate Glycerol Monocaprylate Conjugate and Formulation of Nanoemulsion Preconcentrate

Malaria is one of the major life-threatening health problems worldwide. Artesunate is the most potent antimalarial drug to combat severe malaria. However, development of drug resistance, short plasma half-life, and poor bioavailability limit the efficacy of this drug. Here, we applied the dimerization concept to synthesize dimeric artesunate glycerol monocaprylate conjugate (D-AS-GC) by conjugating artesunate (AS) with glycerol monocaprylate (GC) via esterification reaction. D-AS-GC conjugate, AS, and GC were well characterized by ¹H NMR, attached proton test (APT) ¹³C NMR and 2D NMR spectroscopy. D-AS-GC conjugate was further analyzed by ESI-TOF MS. Finally, a series of nanoemulsion preconcentrate (F1-F6) of D-AS-GC was prepared by mixing different ratios of oil and surfactant/cosurfactant and evaluated after dilution with an aqueous phase. The optimized formulation (F6) exhibits a clear nanoemulsion and the hydrodynamic diameter of the dispersed phase was determined by DLS and DOSY NMR spectroscopy. The morphology of the nanoemulsion droplets of F6 was investigated by AFM, which revealed the formation of tiny nanoemulsion droplets on a hydrophilic mica substrate. Moreover, using a less polar silicon wafer led to the formation of larger droplets with a spherical core shell-like structure. Overall, the rational design of the dimeric artesunate-based nanoemulsion preconcentrate could potentially be used in more efficient drug delivery systems.

Nanoemulsion Loaded with Clotrimazole Based on Rapeseed Oil for Potential Vaginal Application-Development, Initial Assessment, and Pilot Release Studies

Vaginal candidiasis (VC) is an emerging global hardly treated health issue affecting millions of women worldwide. In this study, the nanoemulsion consisting of clotrimazole (CLT), rapeseed oil, Pluronic F-68, Span 80, PEG 200, and lactic acid was prepared using high-speed and high-pressure homogenization. Yielded formulations were characterized by an average droplet size of 52-56 nm, homogenous size distribution by volume, and a polydispersity index (PDI) < 0.2. The osmolality of nanoemulsions (NEs) fulfilled the recommendations of the WHO advisory note. NEs were stable throughout 28 weeks of storage. The stationary and dynamic (USP apparatus IV) pilot study of the changes of free CLT over time for NEs, as well as market cream and CLT suspension as references, were conducted. Test results of the changes in the amount of free CLT released from the encapsulated form were not coherent; in the stationary method, NEs yielded up to 27% of the released CLT dose within 5 h, while in the USP apparatus IV method, NEs released up to 10% of the CLT dose. NEs are promising carriers for vaginal drug delivery in the treatment of VC; however, further development of the final dosage form and harmonized release or dissolution testing protocols are needed.

Exploring paclitaxel-loaded adenosine-conjugated PEGylated PLGA nanoparticles for targeting triple-negative breast cancer

In present investigation, we developed paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded adenosine (ADN)-conjugated PLGA nanoparticles for combating triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), where ADN acts as a substrate for adenosine receptors (AR) that are overexpressed in TNBC. Using synthesized PLGA-PEG-ADN, PTX-loaded nanoparticles (PTX ADN-PEG-PLGA NPs) were prepared via emulsion diffusion evaporation process that rendered particles of size 135 ± 12 nm, PDI of 0.119 ± 0.03, and entrapment-efficiency of 79.26 ± 2.52%. The NPs showed higher %cumulative release at pH 5.5 over 7.4 with Higuchi release kinetics. The PTX ADN-PEG-PLGA NPs showed ~ 4.87- and 5.22-fold decrease in %hemolysis in comparison to free PTX and Intaxel^®, indicating their hemocompatible nature. The ADN modification assisted cytoplasmic internalization of particles via AR-mediated endocytosis that resulted in ~ 3.77- and 3.51-fold reduction in IC₅₀ and showed apoptosis index of 0.93 and 1.18 in MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells respectively. The pharmacokinetic profile of ADN-PEG-PLGA NPs revealed higher AUC and t1/2 than Intaxel^® and Nanoxel^® pharmacodynamic activity showed ~ 18.90-fold lower %tumor burden than control. The kidney and liver function biomarkers showed insignificant change in the levels, when treated with PTX ADN-PEG-PLGA NPs and exhibited no histological alterations in the liver, spleen, and kidney. Overall, the optimized particles were found to be biocompatible with improved anti-TNBC activity.

Engineering biosafe cisplatin loaded nanostructured lipid carrier: optimisation, synthesis, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution

Low aqueous solubility, adverse effects of Cisplatin includes hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity necessitates development of nanoparticulate drug delivery. The study pertains to development of CisNLC (Cisplatin loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier) by ultrasonication. Physical characterisation includes particle size, zeta potential, TEM, SEM-EDX, DSC. Its ex vivo biocompatibility, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution along with acute toxicity induced oxidative stress in Balb/c mice were evaluated. The mean particle diameter of CisNLC was observed to be 141.5 ± 3.86 nm with zeta potential of -41.5 ± 1.62 mV. In vitro release studies at pH 7.4 and 5.8 showed burst release following a sustained release pattern post-72 h. CisNLC showed anticancer efficacy against PA-1. Negligible ex vivo haemolysis indicated bio-compatibility. Improved pharmacokinetics of CisNLC was observed. Acute toxicity and oxidative stress evaluation proved negligible toxicity by CisNLC. The formulated CisNLC had a good physical stability, biocompatible, indicated enhanced circulation and caused negligible toxicity on liver and kidney as compared to pure Cis.

Improved oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble vorinostat by self-microemulsifying drug delivery system

Background

Vorinostat is a histone deacetylase inhibitor suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) with anticancer properties. However, it is plagued by low water solubility, low permeability (BCS class IV drug), and suboptimal pharmacokinetics. The purpose of the present study was to develop a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) to enhance the oral bioavailability of vorinostat. Capryol 90, labrasol, and polyethylene glycol (PEG 400) were selected as oil phase, surfactant, and co-surfactant, respectively. The vorinostat self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems were tested for self-microemulsifying time, phase separation, effect of pH, droplet size, zeta potential, dilution study, Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy analysis, and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). A rat model in vivo pharmacokinetic study was conducted for the optimized formulation against vorinostat pure drug powder.

Results

The results from the characterization studies showed that the optimized formulation (F7) self-microemulsification time was 1.4 ± 0.05 min and no precipitation or phase separation was observed. The mean droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of the optimized formulation (F7) were found to be 272.9 ± 82.7 nm, 0.415, and − 57.2 mV, respectively. The pharmacokinetic parameters of the optimized formulation (F7) showed a 1.6-fold increase in maximum concentration (Cmax) and a 3.6-fold increase in area under the curve (AUC(0−∞)), in comparison with pure drug in suspension.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that SMEDDS formulation could be an effective method for increasing the oral bioavailability of vorinostat, which is poorly water soluble.

Development of Apremilast Nanoemulsion-Loaded Chitosan Gels: In Vitro Evaluations and Anti-Inflammatory and Wound Healing Studies on a Rat Model

Apremilast (APL) has profound anti-inflammatory and wound healing activity, alongside other dermal care. This study aims to develop APL-loaded NEs (ANE1-ANE5) using eucalyptus oil (EO) as the oil and Tween-80 and transcutol-HP (THP) as a surfactant and co-surfactant, respectively. The prepared NEs were then evaluated based on mean droplet size (12.63 ± 1.2 nm), PDI (0.269 ± 0.012), ZP (−23.00 ± 5.86), RI (1.315 ± 0.02), and %T (99.89 ± 0.38) and ANE4 was optimized. Further, optimized NEs (ANE4) were incorporated into chitosan gel (2%, w/v). The developed ANE4-loaded chitosan gel was then evaluated for pH, spreadability, in vitro diffusion, and wound healing and anti-inflammatory studies. Moreover, in vivo studies denoted improved anti-inflammatory and wound healing activity and represented a decrease in wound size percentage (99.68 ± 0.345%) for the APNE2 gel test compared to a negative control (86.48 ± 0.87%) and standard control (92.82 ± 0.34%). Thus, the formulation of ANE4-loaded chitosan gels is an efficient topical treatment strategy for inflammatory and wound healing conditions.

Nanoemulsion and Solid Nanoemulsion for Improving Oral Delivery of a Breast Cancer Drug: Formulation, Evaluation, and a Comparison Study

Letrozole (LZ) is an aromatase inhibitor, which inhibits the formation of estrogens from androgens. Nanoemulsion is a liquid emulsion formulation utilized to increase solubility, bioavailability, and drug delivery to cancer cells. This study aims to improve LZ oral delivery through formulating solid nanoemulsion (SNE). Peppermint oil, tween 80, and transcutol P were used as an oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant, respectively. The optimized nanoemulsion (NE-3) was then incorporated into solid polyethylene glycol (PEG) to formulate (SNE). The optimized (NE-3), SNE-2, and the available marketed tablet have been compared. The optimized (NE-3) was selected according to specific parameters of optimum small nano-size 80 nm, PDI of 0.181, the zeta potential of-98.2, high transmittance (99.78%), optimum pH (5.6), a high percent of LZ content (99.03 ± 1.90), the relatively low viscosity of 60.2 mPa.s, and a rapid release of LZ within 30 min. NE-3 was selected to be formulated as SNE. LZ's best release rate was 80% in 5 min with a content homogeneity of 99.85 ± 0.04 for SNE-2. Zero-order kinetics is determined to have the greatest R² values. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) detected that SNE-2 was (36.75-96.64 nm) with a spherical form and no adhesion or aggregation. FT-IR showed no significant variations in position and shape of the absorption peaks between the pure drug and optimal formulation diagrams. This novel nanoemulsion technology aids in improving the solubility of poorly water-soluble drugs, particularly the SNE delivery method, which has a higher in-vitro release rate and expiration date of LZ than others.

Nanostructured lipid carrier to overcome stratum corneum barrier for the delivery of agomelatine in rat brain; formula optimization, characterization and brain distribution study

The current work attempted to achieve bypassed hepatic metabolism, controlled release, and boosted brain distribution of agomelatine by loading in NLC and administering via transdermal route. Agomelatine-loaded NLC (AG-NLC) was fabricated employing melt-emulsification technique and optimized using central composite design. The optimized AG-NLC had 183.16 ± 6.82 nm particle size, 0.241 ± 0.0236 polydispersity index, and 83.29 ± 2.76% entrapment efficiency. TEM and FESEM visually confirmed the size and surface morphology of AG-NLC, respectively. DSC thermogram confirmed the conversion of AG from crystalline to amorphous form, which indicates improved solubility of AG when loaded in NLC. For further stability and improved applicability, AG-NLC was converted into a hydrogel. The texture analysis of AG-NLC-Gel showed appropriate gelling property in terms of hardness (142.292 g), cohesiveness (0.955), and adhesiveness (216.55 g.sec). In comparison to AG-suspension-Gel (38.036 ± 6.058%), AG-NLC-Gel (89.440 ± 2.586%) exhibited significantly higher (P < 0.005) skin permeation profile during the 24 h study. In the CLSM study, Rhodamine-B loaded AG-NLC-Gel established skin penetration up to the depth of 45 µm, whereas AG-Suspension-Gel was restricted only to a depth of 25 µm. γ-scintigraphy in wistar rats revealed ~ 55.38% brain distribution potential of ^99mTc-AG-NLC-Gel at 12 h, which was 6.31-fold higher than ^99mTc-AG-Suspension-Gel. Overall, the gamma scintigraphy assisted brain distribution study suggests that NLC-Gel system may improve the brain delivery of agomelatine, when applied transdermally.

Ion-Triggered In Situ Gelling Nanoemulgel as a Platform for Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Small Lipophilic Molecules

Background: Intranasal route offers a direct nose-to-brain delivery via olfactory and trigeminal nerves and minimizes the systemic exposure of the drug. Although reliable and non-invasive, intranasal administration of lipophilic neuroprotective agents for brain targeting is still challenging. Literature focuses on naturally-derived compounds as a promising therapeutics for chronic brain diseases. Naringin, a natural flavonoid obtained from citrus fruits possesses neuroprotective effects. By regulating multiple crucial cellular signaling pathways, naringin acts on several therapeutic targets that make it suitable for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s disease and making it a suitable candidate for nasal administration. However, the hydrophobicity of naringin is the primary challenge to formulate it in an aqueous system for nasal administration. Method: We designed a lipid-based nanoemulsifying drug delivery system of naringin using Acrysol K140 as an oil, Tween 80 as a surfactant and Transcutol HP as a cosolvent, to improve solubility and harness the benefits of nanosizing like improved cellular penetration. Intranasal instillations of therapeutic agents have limited efficacy due to drug washout and inadequate adherence to the nasal mucosa. Therefore, we reconstituted the naringin self-emulsifying system in a smart, biodegradable, ion-triggered in situ gelling hydrogel and optimized for desirable gel characteristics. The naringin-loaded composition was optimized and characterized for various physicochemical and rheological properties. Results: The formulation showed a mean droplet size 152.03 ± 4.6 nm with a polydispersity index <0.23. Ex vivo transmucosal permeation kinetics of the developed formulation through sheep nasal mucosa showed sustained diffusion and enhanced steady-state flux and permeability coefficient. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed the spherical shape of emulsion droplets and entrapment of droplets in a gel structure. The formulation showed excellent biocompatibility as analyzed from the viability of L929 fibroblast cells and nasal mucosa histopathology after treatment. In vivo biodistribution studies revealed significantly higher drug transport and brain targeting efficiency. Conclusion: In situ gelling system with nanoemulsified naringin demonstrated a safe nasal delivery providing a new dimension to the treatment of chronic neurodegenerative diseases using small hydrophobic phytoconstituents with minimization of dose and related systemic adverse effects.

Topical Nanoemulgel for the Treatment of Skin Cancer: Proof-of-Technology

The present study is a mechanistic validation of ‘proof-of-technology’ for the effective topical delivery of chrysin nanoemulgel for localized, efficient treatment of melanoma-affected skin. Background: Currently available treatments for skin cancer are inefficient due to systemic side effects and poor transcutaneous permeation, thereby presenting a formidable challenge for the development of novel nanocarriers. Methods: We opted for a novel approach and formulated a nanocomplex system composed of hydrophobic chrysin dissolved in a lipid mix, which was further nanoemulsified in Pluronic^® F-127 gel to enhance physicochemical and biopharmaceutic characteristics. Chrysin, a flavone extracted from passion flowers, exhibits potential anti-cancer activities; however, it has limited applicability due to its poor solubility. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed to identify the best self-nanoemulsifying region by varying the compositions of oil, Caproyl^® 90 surfactant, Tween^® 80, and co-solvent Transcutol^® HP. Chrysin-loaded nanoemulsifying compositions were characterized for various physicochemical properties. Results: This thermodynamically stable, self-emulsifying drug delivery system showed a mean droplet size of 156.9 nm, polydispersity index of 0.26, and viscosity of 9100 cps after dispersion in gel. Mechanical characterization using Texture Analyzer exhibited that the gel had a hardness of 487 g and adhesiveness of 500 g. Ex vivo permeation through rat abdominal skin revealed significant improvement in percutaneous absorption measured as flux, the apparent permeability coefficient, the steady-state diffusion coefficient, and drug deposition. In vitro cytotoxicity on A375 and SK-MEL-2 cell lines showed a significantly improved therapeutic effect, thus ensuring reduction in dose. The safety of the product was established through biocompatibility testing on the L929 cell line. Conclusion: Aqueous, gel-based, topical, nanoemulsified chrysin is a promising technology approach for effective localized transcutaneous delivery that will help reduce the frequency and overall dose usage and ultimately improve the therapeutic index.

Development of active packaging films based on chitosan and nano-encapsulated luteolin

Luteolin is a flavone with potent antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. In this study, luteolin was encapsulated in oil-in-water nanoemulsions that were emulsified by glycerol monooleate and Tween 20. Results showed 68 mg luteolin-loaded nanoemulsions had the highest stability (zeta potential of -39.8 mV) and encapsulation efficiency (89.52%). Then, active packaging films were developed by incorporating free or nano-encapsulated luteolin into chitosan-based matrix. The microstructure, physical and functional properties of CS film containing free luteolin (CS-LL) or nano-encapsulated luteolin (CS-LLNEs) were compared. Different from CS film, CS-LL and CS-LLNEs films had compact inner microstructure and strengthened intermolecular interactions. Moreover, CS-LLNEs film was more homogenous and compact than CS-LL film. As a result, CS-LLNEs film presented higher water vapor and oxygen barrier abilities and mechanical properties in comparison with CS-LL film. In addition, CS-LLNEs film showed slower release rate of luteolin in 95% ethanol (fatty food stimulant) as compared with CS-LL film. The controlled release of luteolin from film matrix could guarantee CS-LLNEs film to exert antioxidant activity up to 10 days. Our results suggest CS-LLNEs film can be developed as an emerging active packaging material that has potential applications in food industry.

Effect of Chitosan Coating on PLGA Nanoparticles for Oral Delivery of Thymoquinone: In Vitro, Ex Vivo, and Cancer Cell Line Assessments

In the present study, thymoquinone (TQ)-encapsulated chitosan- (CS)-coated poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were formulated using the emulsion evaporation method. NPs were optimized by using 33-QbD approach for improved efficacy against breast cancer. The optimized thymoquinone loaded chitosan coated Poly (d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles (TQ-CS-PLGA-NPs) were successfully characterized by different in vitro and ex vivo experiments as well as evaluated for cytotoxicity in MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cell lines. The surface coating of PLGA-NPs was completed by CS coating and there were no significant changes in particle size and entrapment efficiency (EE) observed. The developed TQ-CS-PLGA-NPs showed particle size, polydispersibility index (PDI), and %EE in the range between 126.03–196.71 nm, 0.118–0.205, and 62.75%–92.17%. The high and prolonged TQ release rate was achieved from TQ-PLGA-NPs and TQ-CS-PLGA-NPs. The optimized TQ-CS-PLGA-NPs showed significantly higher mucoadhesion and intestinal permeation compared to uncoated TQ-PLGA-NPs and TQ suspension. Furthermore, TQ-CS-PLGA-NPs showed statistically enhanced antioxidant potential and cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells compared to uncoated TQ-PLGA-NPs and pure TQ. On the basis of the above findings, it may be stated that chitosan-coated TQ-PLGA-NPs represent a great potential for breast cancer management.

Formulation design and evaluation of aceclofenac nanogel for topical application

Aim: The current study aimed to explore the feasibility of the nanoemulgel for the topical delivery of aceclofenac. Materials & methods: Solubility of drugs in the formulation systems was determined and aceclofenac nanoemulsion (NE) was prepared by high-pressure homogenization technique. Carbopol 940 was added as a gelling agent. Results & conclusion: The composition of optimized NE consist of labrafil along with triacetin as oil, tween 80 and cremophor EL in combination as a surfactant and transcutol HP along with PEG 400 and ethanol as cosurfactant. The droplet size of the NE was 141.1 ± 3.65 nm, with low polydispersity index and negative zeta potential. The aceclofenac-nanoemulgel was developed using carbopol 940 and exhibited excellent permeation in comparison to the marketed sample.

Surface-Engineered Cancer Nanomedicine: Rational Design and Recent Progress

Cancer is highly heterogeneous in nature and characterized by abnormal, uncontrolled cells' growth. It is responsible for the second leading cause of death in the world. Nanotechnology is explored profoundly for sitespecific delivery of cancer chemotherapeutics as well as overcome multidrug-resistance (MDR) challenges in cancer. The progress in the design of various smart biocompatible materials (such as polymers, lipids and inorganic materials) has now revolutionized the area of cancer research for the rational design of nanomedicine by surface engineering with targeting ligands. The small tunable size and surface properties of nanomedicines provide the opportunity of multiple payloads and multivalent-ligand targeting to achieve drug efficacy even in MDR cancer. Furthermore, efforts are being carried out for the development of novel nano-pharmaceutical design, focusing on the delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents simultaneously which is called theranostics to assess the progress of therapy in cancer. This review aimed to discuss the physicochemical manipulation of cancer nanomedicine for rational design and recent progress in the area of surface engineering of nanomedicines to improve the efficacy of cancer chemotherapeutics in MDR cancer as well. Moreover, the problem of toxicity of the advanced functional materials that are used in nanomedicines and are exploited to achieve drug targeting in cancer is also addressed.

Co-Delivery of Imiquimod and Curcumin by Nanoemugel for Improved Topical Delivery and Reduced Psoriasis-Like Skin Lesions

The current investigation aimed to improve the topical efficacy of imiquimod in combination with curcumin using the nanoemulsion-based delivery system through a combinatorial approach. Co-delivery of curcumin acts as an adjuvant therapeutic and to minimize the adverse skin reactions that are frequently associated with the topical therapy of imiquimod for the treatment of cutaneous infections and basal cell carcinomas. The low-energy emulsification method was used for the nano-encapsulation of imiquimod and curcumin in the nanodroplet oil phase, which was stabilized using Tween 20 in an aqueous dispersion system. The weak base property of imiquimod helped to increase its solubility in oleic acid compared with ethyl oleate, which indicates that fatty acids should be preferred as the oil phase for the design of imiquimod-loaded topical nanoemulsion compared with fatty acid esters. The phase diagram method was used to optimize the percentage composition of the nanoemulsion formulation. The mean droplet size of the optimized nanoemulsion was 76.93 nm, with a polydispersity index (PdI) value of 0.121 and zeta potential value of −20.5 mV. The optimized imiquimod-loaded nanoemulsion was uniformly dispersed in carbopol 934 hydrogel to develop into a nanoemulgel delivery system. The imiquimod nanoemulgel exhibited significant improvement (p < 0.05) in skin permeability and deposition profile after topical application. The in vivo effectiveness of the combination of imiquimod and curcumin nanoemulgel was compared to the imiquimod nanoemulgel and imiquimod gel formulation through topical application for ten days in BALB/c mice. The combination of curcumin with imiquimod in the nanoemulgel system prevented the appearance of psoriasis-like symptoms compared with the imiquimod nanoemulgel and imiquimod gel formulation entirely. Further, the imiquimod nanoemulgel as a mono-preparation slowed and reduced the psoriasis-like skin reaction when compared with the conventional imiquimod gel, and that was contributed to by the control release property of the nano-encapsulation approach.

Topical Nano-emulgel for Skin Disorders: Formulation Approach and Characterization

BACKGROUNDS

Acne vulgaris is a common chronic skin disease that affects around 9.4% (approx. 650 million people) of the global population. Growing research in the field of nanomedicine over the years has now been exploited in management of various human disorders. The nanomedicine concept has an immense opportunity for the effective management and control of acne disease by designing a novel, low-dose topical delivery system. Topical nanoemulsion-based gel preparations are said to have various benefits over the conventional formulations. The recent patents on topical anti-acne formulation (US 7241456B2; US 6897238B2; US 6284234B1) provided the concept to design thymol loaded nano-emulgel for topical application in acne.

METHODS

The objective of the current investigation was to design a thymol loaded nanoemulgel preparation by exploiting low-energy emulsification method for topical application in acne. Furthermore, developed formulation was characterized for thermodynamic stability, mean droplet size, zeta potential, drug content and in-vitro drug diffusion study.

RESULTS

The optimized thymol loaded nanoemulsion was found to be 13.60±0.117 nm with PdI 0.197±0.008. Nanoemulsions will provide an enormous surface area for better penetration of therapeutic agent into the pilosebaceous region, resulting better efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

From the above studies, it concluded that aqueous-based gel vehicle of the developed formulation system exploited for topical delivery has moisturising properties which can improve local tolerability also.

Theranostic application of nanoemulsions in chemotherapy

Theranostics has the potential to revolutionize the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of cancer, where novel drug delivery systems could be used to detect the disease at an early stage with instantaneous treatment. Various preclinical approaches of nanoemulsions with entrapped contrast and chemotherapeutic agents have been documented to act specifically on the tumor microenvironment (TME) for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. However, bringing these theranostic nanoemulsions through preclinical trials to patients requires several fundamental hurdles to be overcome, including the in vivo behavior of the delivery tool, degradation, and clearance from the system, as well as long-term toxicities. Here, we discuss recent advances in the application of nanoemulsions in molecular imaging with simultaneous therapeutic efficacy in a single delivery system.

Improved Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Diclofenac Sodium by Topical Nanoemulgel: Formulation Development—In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

The present study aimed to develop diclofenac sodium nanoemulgel for managing pain and inflammation using the low-energy emulsification technique. Nanoemulsion of diclofenac was formulated using clove oil with adequate amount of surfactants and cosurfactants, and it was converted to hydrogel form using Carbopol 980 as the gelling agent. The droplet size of the oil globules in the nanoemulsion was found to be 64.07 ± 2.65 nm with a low polydispersity index (0.238 ± 0.02) along with high negative zeta potential (−39.06 mV). The developed nanoemulgel exhibited non-Newtonian and pseudoplastic behavior. The in vitro release profile of the developed nanoemulgel was higher as compared to marketed and conventional gel. The carrageenan-induced paw edema test was performed in rats to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of developed nanoemulgel. The developed nanoemulgel showed significantly higher (p<0.01) effect in reducing pain and inflammation symptoms as compared to marketed as well as conventional gel of diclofenac. The overall findings of the study suggest that the developed nanoemulgel formulation of diclofenac can be used as a potential approach for the management of pain and inflammation.

Bromocriptine Nanoemulsion-Loaded Transdermal Gel: Optimization Using Factorial Design, In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Bromocriptine mesylate (BCM), a dopaminergic agonist administered orally, exhibits retarded bioavailability owing to poor absorption and extreme first-pass metabolism. The objective of the current study was to develop, characterize, and statistically optimize BCM nanoemulsion (BCM-NE) loaded into a gel (BCM-NE gel) to evaluate its potential for improved permeation of BCM through the transdermal route, thereby improving its pharmacokinetic profile. BCM-NE was prepared by o/w spontaneous emulsification method and the effects of different formulation variables on the critical attributes of NE like globule size were investigated by implementing factorial design. The optimized formulation exhibited a mean globule size of 160 ± 6.5 nm, zeta potential of - 20.4 ± 1.23 mV, and drug content of 99.45 ± 1.9%. Ex vivo permeation studies across rat skin exhibited a significant enhancement in permeation, i.e., enhancement ratio (ER) of ~ 7.4 and 5.86 for BCM-NE and BCM-NE gel, respectively, when compared with aqueous BCM suspension gel. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies performed in rats demonstrated a higher and prolonged drug release of BCM from BCM-NE gel when compared to oral aqueous BCM suspension. The AUC_0-t for BCM-NE gel and BCM suspension was found to be 562.54 ± 77.55 and 204.96 ± 51.93 ng/ml h, respectively. The relative bioavailability (%F) of BCM was shown to be enhanced 274% by BCM-NE gel. Histopathological studies demonstrated the safety and biocompatibility of the developed system. All the above results proved that the BCM-NE gel could be a superior and patient-compliant alternative to oral delivery in the management of PD.

Vitamin E Loaded Naringenin Nanoemulsion via Intranasal Delivery for the Management of Oxidative Stress in a 6-OHDA Parkinson's Disease Model

Purpose

The present study is an attempt to develop a vitamin E loaded naringenin (NRG) Nanoemulsion (NE) for direct nose-to-brain delivery for better management of Parkinson's disease (PD).

Methods

The optimized NE was evaluated for efficacy in PD using multiple behavioral studies (including narrow beam test, muscular coordination test, grip strength test, forced swimming test, and akinesia test) in a rat model. Optimized formulation was evaluated for droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), refractive index, transmittance, zeta potential, and viscosity.

Results

Optimized NE had a droplet size of 38.70 ± 3.11nm, PDI of 0.14 ± 0.0024, refractive index of 1.43 ± 0.01, transmittance of 98.12 ± 0.07 %, zeta potential of − 27.4 ± 0.14 mV, and viscosity of 19.67 ± 0.25 Pa s. Behavioral studies showed that 6-OHDA induced PD in rats were successfully reversed when administered with NRG NE intranasally along with the levodopa. While the levels of GSH and SOD were significantly higher, levels of MDA were significantly lower in the group treated with NRG NE via intranasal route along with levodopa.

Conclusion

Encouraging results from current study provide evidence for possible efficacy of a novel noninvasive intranasal delivery system of NRG for management of PD related symptoms.

Paclitaxel-loaded Nanolipidic Carriers with Improved Oral Bioavailability and Anticancer Activity against Human Liver Carcinoma

The poorly water-soluble chemotherapeutic agents, paclitaxel (PTX), exhibit serious clinical side effects upon oral administration due to poor aqueous solubility and a high degree of toxic effects due to non-specific distribution to healthy tissues. In our efforts, we formulated biocompatible dietary lipid-based nanostructured lipidic carriers (NLCs) to enhance the oral bioavailability of PTX for treatment of the liver cancer. A three-factor, three-level Box-Behnken design was employed for formulation and optimization of PTX-loaded NLC formulations. PTX-loaded NLC formulation prepared by melt-emulsification in which glyceryl monostearate (GMS) was used as solid lipid and soybean oil as liquid lipid, while poloxamer 188 and Tween 80 (1:1) incorporated as a surfactant. In vitro drug release investigation was executed by dialysis bag approach, which indicated initial burst effect with > 60% drug release within a 4-h time period. Moreover, PTX-NLCs indicated high entrapment (86.48%) and drug loading efficiency (16.54%). In vitro cytotoxicity study of PTX-NLCs performed on HepG2 cell line by MTT assay indicated that PTX-NLCs exhibited comparatively higher cytotoxicity than commercial formulation (Intaxel®). IC₅₀ values of PTX-NLCs and Intaxel® after 24-h exposure were found to be 4.19 μM and 11.2 μM. In vivo pharmacokinetic study in Wistar rats also indicated nearly 6.8-fold improvement in AUC and C_max of the drug from the PTX-NLCs over the PTX suspension. In a nutshell, the observed results construed significant enhancement in the biopharmaceutical attributes of PTX-NLCs as a potential therapy for the management of human liver carcinoma.

Localized In Situ Nanoemulgel Drug Delivery System of Quercetin for Periodontitis: Development and Computational Simulations

This study was aimed at formulating a bioabsorbable, controlled-release, nanoemulgel of Quercetin, a potent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agent for the treatment of periodontitis that could improve its solubility and bioavailability. Screening of components was carried out based on the solubility studies. Nanoemulsion containing cinnamon oil as the oil phase, tween 80 and Carbitol® as the surfactant-cosurfactant mixture (Smix) and water as the aqueous phase containing 125 µg/200 µL of Quercetin was prepared by using spontaneous emulsification method. Nanoemulgel was prepared using 23% w/v poloxamer 407 as gel base. Comprehensive evaluation of the formulated nanoemulgel was carried out, and the optimized formulation was studied for drug release using Franz vertical diffusion cells. The formulated nanoemulgelexhibited a remarkable release of 92.4% of Quercetin at the end of 6 h, as compared to that of pure Quercetin-loaded gel (<3% release). The viscosity of the prepared nanoemulgel was found to be 30,647 ± 0.32 cPs at 37 °C. Also, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was utilized to understand the gelation process and role of each component in the formulation. The present study revealed that the developed nanoemulgel of Quercetin could be a potential delivery system for clinical testing in periodontitis.

Biopharmaceutical insights of particulate emulsified systems - a prospective overview

During the twenty-first century, drug discovery is expanding rapidly and a large number of chemical moieties are recognized. Many of them are poorly soluble and hence related biopharmaceutical constraints are to be addressed systematically. Among novel approaches to resolving biopharmaceutical issues, micro- and nano-emulsified systems serve as the best strategy for delivering both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs owing to their greater solubilization and transportation capabilities. Of late, the unique physical and biopharmaceutical properties of these liquid isotropic homogenous systems have gained substantive research importance. In addition nano/micro lipid systems share structural and functional similarity with that of the physiological lipids which offer better tolerance ability in the body. In this context, this article provides information on the historical emergence of particulate emulsified systems, importance and rationale of selection of carriers. It also encompasses the physicochemical principles that are responsible for the elevation of therapeutic outcomes of delivery systems. Detailed and schematic absorption of these drug delivery systems is explained here. Gastro-intestinal biochemistry necessary in the understanding of digestion process, lipolytic products formed, micellar structures, enzymes, transporters, mechanism of cell uptake involved after subsequent oral absorption are also emphasized. In addition, this article also explains disposition and pharmacokinetic properties of emulsified systems with real-time therapeutic research outcomes. The influence of biochemical compositions and biopharmaceutical principles on absorption and disposition patterns of ME/NEs was described in the article for the interest of readers and young researchers.

Lipid drug conjugate nanoparticle as a potential nanocarrier for the oral delivery of pemetrexed diacid: Formulation design, characterization, ex vivo, and in vivo assessment

The present work was to develop lipid drug conjugated (LDC) nanoparticles for the potential oral delivery of pemetrexed diacid (PTX) and evaluation of its in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo potentials. The LDC was prepared by salt formation of PTX with stearic acid and followed by cold homogenization technique to produce the LDC nanoparticles. FTIR analysis of LDC proved the presence of amide bond in LDC powder indicating the conjugation between drug and lipid. LDC nanoparticles was found to have particle size 121.9±1.85nm and zeta potential -51.6mV±1.23 and entrapment efficiency 81.0±0.89%. TEM images revealed spherical morphology and were in corroboration with particle size measurements. Ex vivo gut permeation studies revealed a very good enhancement in permeation of drug present in the LDC as compared to plain drug solution and were confirmed by CLSM. MTT assay conformed significant% toxicity at the end of 24h and 48h. Furthermore, the AUC_0-24 of PTX from the optimized LDC nanoparticels was found to be 4.22 folds higher than that from PTX suspension on oral administration. Thus, LDC has high potential for the oral delivery of PTX in cancer therapy and future prospects for the industrial purpose.

Enhanced apoptotic and anticancer potential of paclitaxel loaded biodegradable nanoparticles based on chitosan

Taxanes have established and proven effectivity against different types of cancers; in particular breast cancers. However, the high hemolytic toxicity and hydrophobic nature of paclitaxel and docetaxel have always posed challenges to achieve safe and effective delivery. Use of bio-degradable materials with an added advantage of nanotechnology could possibly improve the condition so as to achieve better and safe delivery. In the present study paclitaxel loaded chitosan nanoparticles were formulated and optimized using simple w/o nanoemulsion technique. The observed average size, pdi, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency and drug loading for the optimized paclitaxel loaded chitosan nanoparticle formulation (PTX-CS-NP-10) was 226.7±0.70nm, 0.345±0.039, 37.4±0.77mV, 79.24±2.95% and 11.57±0.81%; respectively. Nanoparticles were characterized further for size by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). In vitro release studies exhibited sustained release pattern and more than 60% release was observed within 24h. Enhanced in vitro anticancer activity was observed as a result of MTT assay against triple negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. The observed IC₅₀ values obtained for PTX-CS-NP-10 was 9.36±1.13μM and was almost 1.6 folds (p<0.05) less than the pure drug. Similarly, PTX-CS-NP-10 were extremely biocompatible and safe as observed for haemolytic toxicity which was almost 4 folds less (p<0.05) than the naïve drug. Anticancer activity was further evaluated using flow cytometry for apoptosis. Cell apoptosis study revealed that PTX-CS-NP-10 treatment resulted into enhanced (almost double) late cell apoptosis than naïve paclitaxel. Hence the developed nanoparticulate formulation not only reduced the overall toxicity but also resulted into improved anticancer efficacy of paclitaxel. It can be concluded that a robust, stable and comparatively safe nanoformulation of paclitaxel was developed, characterized and evaluated.

Engineered Nanoparticles Against MDR in Cancer: The State of the Art and its Prospective

Cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease at intra/inter patient levels and known as the leading cause of death worldwide. A variety of mono and combinational therapies including chemotherapy have been evolved over the years for its effective treatment. However, advent of chemotherapeutic resistance or multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer is a major challenge researchers are facing in cancer chemotherapy. MDR is a complex process having multifaceted non-cellular or cellular-based mechanisms. Research in the area of cancer nanotechnology over the past two decade has now proven that the smartly designed nanoparticles help in successful chemotherapy by overcoming the MDR and preferentially accumulate in the tumor region by means of active and passive targeting therefore reducing the offtarget accumulation of payload. Many of such nanoparticles are in different stages of clinical trials as nanomedicines showing promising result in cancer therapy including the resistant cases. Nanoparticles as chemotherapeutics carriers offer the opportunity to have multiple payload of drug and or imaging agents for combinational and theranostics therapy. Moreover, nanotechnology further bring in notice the new treatment strategies such as combining the NIR, MRI and HIFU in cancer chemotherapy and imaging. Here, we discussed the cellular/non-cellular factors constituting the MDR in cancer and the role of nanomedicines in effective chemotherapy of MDR cases of cancers. Moreover, recent advancements like combinational payload delivery and combined physical approach with nanotechnology in cancer therapy have also been discussed.