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Lee B, Lee SM, Song JW, Choi JW. Gut Microbiota Metabolite Messengers in Brain Function and Pathology at a View of Cell Type-Based Receptor and Enzyme Reaction. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2024; 32:403-423. [PMID: 38898687 PMCID: PMC11214962 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2024.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract houses a diverse microbial community, known as the gut microbiome comprising bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. The gut microbiome plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's equilibrium and has recently been discovered to influence the functioning of the central nervous system (CNS). The communication between the nervous system and the GI tract occurs through a two-way network called the gut-brain axis. The nervous system and the GI tract can modulate each other through activated neuronal cells, the immune system, and metabolites produced by the gut microbiome. Extensive research both in preclinical and clinical realms, has highlighted the complex relationship between the gut and diseases associated with the CNS, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. This review aims to delineate receptor and target enzymes linked with gut microbiota metabolites and explore their specific roles within the brain, particularly their impact on CNS-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bada Lee
- Department of Biomedicinal and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Min Lee
- Department of Biomedicinal and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Won Song
- Department of Regulatory Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Woo Choi
- Department of Biomedicinal and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Regulatory Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
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Babu HWS, Elangovan A, Iyer M, Kirola L, Muthusamy S, Jeeth P, Muthukumar S, Vanlalpeka H, Gopalakrishnan AV, Kadhirvel S, Kumar NS, Vellingiri B. Association Study Between Kynurenine 3-Monooxygenase (KMO) Gene and Parkinson's Disease Patients. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:3867-3881. [PMID: 38040995 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03815-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
The influence of various risk factors such as aging, intricate cellular molecular processes, and lifestyle factors like smoking, alcohol consumption, caffeine intake, and occupational factors has received increased focus in relation to the risk and development of Parkinson's disease (PD). Limited research has been conducted on the assessment of lifestyle impact on kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO) gene in PD. A total of 164 subjects, including 82 PD cases and 82 healthy individuals, were recruited based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The severity of PD and clinical assessment were evaluated using the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) and Hoehn and Yahr (HY) scaling. Sanger sequencing was performed to analyse the KMO gene in the recruited subjects, and case-control studies were conducted. The UPDRS assessment revealed significant impairments in smell, tremors, walking, and posture instability in the late-onset PD cohorts. The HY scaling indicated a higher proportion of late-onset cohorts in stage 2. Moreover, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic groups showed significantly increased levels of 3-HK in late-onset PD. Gene analysis identified missense variants at position g.241593373 T > A (rs752312199) and intronic variants at positions g.241592623A > G (rs640718), g.241592800C > A (rs990388262), g.241592802A > C (rs1350160268), g.241592808 T > C (rs1478255936), and g.241592812G > T (rs948928931). The alterations in the KMO gene were found to influence the levels of kynurenic acid (KYNA) and 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK). Genomic analysis revealed a high prevalence of missense mutations in the late-onset PD groups, leading to a decline in 3-HK levels in patients. This leads to the reduction of the progression of disease in late-onset groups which shows that this mutation may lead to the protective effect on the PD subjects. This study suggests the use of KYNA and 3-HK as potential biomarkers in analysing the progression of disease. This study is limited by its small sample size. To overcome this limitation, a larger study involving in greater number of participants is needed to thoroughly investigate the KMO gene and KP metabolites, to enhance our understanding of Parkinson's disease progression, and to enhance diagnostic capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harysh Winster Suresh Babu
- Human Molecular Cytogenetics and Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Translational Research, Department of Zoology, School of Basic Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, Punjab, India
| | - Ajay Elangovan
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Translational Research, Department of Zoology, School of Basic Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, Punjab, India
| | - Mahalaxmi Iyer
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, Punjab, India
- Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Biotechnology, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education (Deemed to be University), Coimbatore, India
| | - Laxmi Kirola
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, 201301, India
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Health Sciences and Technology (SoHST), UPES University, Dehradun, 248007, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Sureshan Muthusamy
- School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India
| | - Priyanka Jeeth
- Structural and Computational Biology Laboratory, Department of Computational Sciences, Central University of Punjab, 151401, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Sindduja Muthukumar
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Translational Research, Department of Zoology, School of Basic Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, Punjab, India
| | - Harvey Vanlalpeka
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Zoram Medical College, Falkawn, 796005, India
| | - Abilash Valsala Gopalakrishnan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu, Vellore, 632 014, India
| | - Saraboji Kadhirvel
- Structural and Computational Biology Laboratory, Department of Computational Sciences, Central University of Punjab, 151401, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | | | - Balachandar Vellingiri
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Translational Research, Department of Zoology, School of Basic Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401, Punjab, India.
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Behl T, Kaur I, Sehgal A, Singh S, Bhatia S, Al-Harrasi A, Zengin G, Bumbu AG, Andronie-Cioara FL, Nechifor AC, Gitea D, Bungau AF, Toma MM, Bungau SG. The Footprint of Kynurenine Pathway in Neurodegeneration: Janus-Faced Role in Parkinson's Disorder and Therapeutic Implications. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6737. [PMID: 34201647 PMCID: PMC8268239 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Progressive degeneration of neurons and aggravation of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta results in the loss of dopamine in the brain of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Numerous therapies, exhibiting transient efficacy have been developed; however, they are mostly accompanied by side effects and limited reliability, therefore instigating the need to develop novel optimistic treatment targets. Significant therapeutic targets have been identified, namely: chaperones, protein Abelson, glucocerebrosidase-1, calcium, neuromelanin, ubiquitin-proteasome system, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the kynurenine pathway (KP). The role of KP and its metabolites and enzymes in PD, namely quinolinic acid (QUIN), kynurenic acid (KYNA), 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), 3-hydroxyanthranillic acid (3-HAA), kunurenine-3-monooxygenase (KMO), etc. has been reported. The neurotoxic QUIN, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonist, and neuroprotective KYNA-which antagonizes QUIN actions-primarily justify the Janus-faced role of KP in PD. Moreover, KP has been reported to play a biomarker role in PD detection. Therefore, the authors detail the neurotoxic, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory neuroactive components, alongside the upstream and downstream metabolic pathways of KP, forming a basis for a therapeutic paradigm of the disease while recognizing KP as a potential biomarker in PD, thus facilitating the development of a suitable target in PD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapan Behl
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Ishnoor Kaur
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Aayush Sehgal
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Sukhbir Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab 140401, India; (I.K.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Saurabh Bhatia
- Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University, Gurugram, Haryana 122412, India;
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Centre, University of Nizwa, P.O. Box 33, PC 616 Birkat Al Mouz, Nizwa 611, Oman;
| | - Ahmed Al-Harrasi
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Centre, University of Nizwa, P.O. Box 33, PC 616 Birkat Al Mouz, Nizwa 611, Oman;
| | - Gokhan Zengin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Selcuk University Campus, Konya 42130, Turkey;
| | - Adrian Gheorghe Bumbu
- Department of Surgical Disciplines, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410073 Oradea, Romania;
| | - Felicia Liana Andronie-Cioara
- Department of Psycho-Neuroscience and Recovery, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410073 Oradea, Romania;
| | - Aurelia Cristina Nechifor
- Analytical Chemistry and Environmental Engineering Department, Polytechnic University of Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania;
| | - Daniela Gitea
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410028 Oradea, Romania; (D.G.); (M.M.T.)
| | | | - Mirela Marioara Toma
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410028 Oradea, Romania; (D.G.); (M.M.T.)
- Doctoral School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Oradea, 410087 Oradea, Romania
| | - Simona Gabriela Bungau
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, 410028 Oradea, Romania; (D.G.); (M.M.T.)
- Doctoral School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Oradea, 410087 Oradea, Romania
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Török N, Tanaka M, Vécsei L. Searching for Peripheral Biomarkers in Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Tryptophan-Kynurenine Metabolic Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E9338. [PMID: 33302404 PMCID: PMC7762583 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are multifactorial, initiated by a series of the causative complex which develops into a certain clinical picture. The pathogenesis and disease course vary from patient to patient. Thus, it should be likewise to the treatment. Peripheral biomarkers are to play a central role for tailoring a personalized therapeutic plan for patients who suffered from neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis, among others. Nevertheless, the use of biomarkers in clinical practice is still underappreciated and data presented in biomarker research for clinical use is still uncompelling, compared to the abundant data available for drug research and development. So is the case with kynurenines (KYNs) and the kynurenine pathway (KP) enzymes, which have been associated with a wide range of diseases including cancer, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, neurologic diseases, and psychiatric disorders. This review article discusses current knowledge of KP alterations observed in the central nervous system as well as the periphery, its involvement in pathogenesis and disease progression, and emerging evidence of roles of microbiota in the gut-brain axis, searching for practical peripheral biomarkers which ensure personalized treatment plans for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nóra Török
- MTA-SZTE, Neuroscience Research Group, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary; (N.T.); (M.T.)
| | - Masaru Tanaka
- MTA-SZTE, Neuroscience Research Group, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary; (N.T.); (M.T.)
- Department of Neurology, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Vécsei
- MTA-SZTE, Neuroscience Research Group, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary; (N.T.); (M.T.)
- Department of Neurology, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
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Venkatesan D, Iyer M, Narayanasamy A, Siva K, Vellingiri B. Kynurenine pathway in Parkinson's disease-An update. eNeurologicalSci 2020; 21:100270. [PMID: 33134567 PMCID: PMC7585940 DOI: 10.1016/j.ensci.2020.100270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex multi-factorial neurodegenerative disorder where various altered metabolic pathways contribute to the progression of the disease. Tryptophan (TRP) is a major precursor in kynurenine pathway (KP) and it has been discussed in various in vitro studies that the metabolites quinolinic acid (QUIN) causes neurotoxicity and kynurenic acid (KYNA) acts as neuroprotectant respectively. More studies are also focused on the effects of other KP metabolites and its enzymes as it has an association with ageing and PD pathogenesis. Until now, very few studies have targeted the role of genetic mutations in abnormal KP metabolism in adverse conditions of PD. Therefore, the present review gives an updated research studies on KP in connection with PD. Moreover, the review emphasizes on the urge for the development of biomarkers and also this would be an initiative in generating an alternative therapeutic approach for PD.
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Key Words
- 3-HAA, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid
- 3-HK, 3-hydroxykynurenine
- 6-OHDA, 6-hydroxydopamine
- AA, anthranilic acid
- ACMSD, amino-carboxymuconatesemialdehyde decarboxylase
- AD, Alzheimer's disease
- ATP, adenosine triphosphate
- Ageing
- AhR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor
- Biomarkers
- CNS, central nervous system
- CSF, cerebrospinal fluid
- DA, dopaminergic
- FAM, formamidase
- IDO-1, indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenases
- IFN-γ, interferon-γ
- KATs, kynurenine aminotransferases
- KMO, kynurenine −3-monooxygenase
- KP, Kynurenine pathway
- KYN, kynurenine
- KYNA, kynurenic acid
- Kynurenine pathway (KP)
- L-DOPA, L-dopamine
- LID, L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia
- MPTP, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine
- NAD+, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
- NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
- NFK, N′-formylkynurenine
- NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartate
- PA, picolinic acid
- PD, Parkinson's disease
- Parkinson's disease (PD)
- QUIN, quinolinic acid
- RBCs, red blood cells
- SNpc, substantianigra pars compacta
- TDO, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase
- TRP, tryptophan
- Therapeutics
- XA, xanthurenic acid
- ZNS, zonisamide
- α-synuclein, αSyn
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhivya Venkatesan
- Human Molecular Cytogenetics and Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Mahalaxmi Iyer
- Department of Zoology, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore 641 043, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Arul Narayanasamy
- Disease Proteomics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kamalakannan Siva
- National Centre for Disease Control, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi 110054, India
| | - Balachandar Vellingiri
- Human Molecular Cytogenetics and Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
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Boros FA, Bohár Z, Vécsei L. Genetic alterations affecting the genes encoding the enzymes of the kynurenine pathway and their association with human diseases. MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2018; 776:32-45. [PMID: 29807576 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Tryptophan is metabolized primarily via the kynurenine pathway (KP), which involves several enzymes, including indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, tryptophan 2,3 dioxygenase (TDO), kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs), kynurenine monooxygenase (KMO) etc. The majority of metabolites are neuroactive: some of them, such as kynurenic acid, show neuroprotective effects, while others contribute to free radical production, leading to neurodegeneration. Imbalance of the pathway is assumed to contribute to the development of several neurodegenerative diseases, psychiatric disorders, migraine and multiple sclerosis. Our aim was to summarize published data on genetic alterations of enzymes involved in the KP leading to disturbances of the pathway that can be related to different diseases. To achieve this, a PubMed literature search was performed for publications on genetic alterations of the KP enzymes upto April 2017. Several genetic alterations of the KP have been identified and have been proposed to be associated with diseases. Here we must emphasize that despite the large number of recognized genetic alterations, the number of firmly established causal relations with specific diseases is still small. The realization of this by those interested in the field is very important and finding such connections should be a major focus of related research. Polymorphisms of the genes encoding the enzymes of the KP have been associated with autism, multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia, and were shown to affect the immune response of patients with bacterial meningitis, just to mention a few. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review of the genetic alterations of the KP enzymes. We believe that the identification of genetic alterations underlying diseases has great value regarding both treatment and diagnostics in precision medicine, as this work can promote the understanding of pathological mechanisms, and might facilitate medicinal chemistry approaches to substitute missing components or correct the disturbed metabolite balance of KP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanni A Boros
- Department of Neurology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsuzsanna Bohár
- Department of Neurology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary; MTA-SZTE Neuroscience Research Group, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Vécsei
- Department of Neurology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary; MTA-SZTE Neuroscience Research Group, Szeged, Hungary.
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