Drug Delivery Innovations for Enhancing the Anticancer Potential of Vitamin E Isoforms and Their Derivatives

Nanoparticles for Augmenting Therapeutic Potential and Alleviating the Effect of Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate on Gastric Cancer

Changes in diet culture and modern lifestyle contributed to a higher incidence of gastrointestinal-related diseases, including gastritis, implicated in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer. This observation raised concerns regarding exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), which is linked to adverse health effects, including reproductive and developmental problems, inflammatory response, and invasive adenocarcinoma. Research on the direct link between DEHP and gastric cancer is ongoing, and further studies are required to establish a conclusive association. In our study, extremely low concentrations of DEHP exerted significant effects on cell migration by promoting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition in gastric cancer cells. This effect was mediated by the modulation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and Smad2 signaling pathways. To address the DEHP challenges, our initial design of TPGS-conjugated fucoidan, delivered via pH-responsive nanoparticles, successfully demonstrated binding to the P-selectin protein. This achievement has not only enhanced the antigastric tumor efficacy but has also led to a significant reduction in the expression of malignant proteins associated with the condition. These findings underscore the promising clinical therapeutic potential of our approach.

The Chimera of TPGS and Nanoscale Lipid Carriers as Lymphatic Drug Delivery Vehicles to Fight Metastatic Cancers

The lymphatic system (LS) plays a crucial role in fluid balance, transportation of macromolecules, and immune response. Moreover, LS is a channel for microbial invasion and cancer metastasis. Particularly, solid tumors, including lung, breast, melanoma, and prostate cancers, are metastasized across highways of LS. Subsequently, the fabrication of chimeric lymphatic drug delivery systems (LDDS) is a promising strategy to fight cancer metastasis and control microbial pandemics. In this regard, LDDS, in terms of PEG-nanoscaled lipid carriers, elicited a revolution during the COVID-19 pandemic as cargoes for mRNA vaccines. The drug delivered by the lymphatic pathway escapes first-pass metabolism and enhances the drug's bioavailability. Ample approaches, including synthesis of prodrugs, trigging of chylomicron biosynthesis, and fabrication of nanocarriers, facilitate lymphatic drug delivery. Specifically, nanoscales lipid cargoes have the propensity to lymphatic trafficking. Interestingly, TPGSengineered nanoscale lipid cargoes enhance lymphatic trafficking, increase tissue permeation, and, specifically, uptake. Moreover, they overcome biological barriers, control biodistribution, and enhance organelles localization. Most anticancer agents are non-specific, have low bioavailability, and induced drug resistance. Therefore, TPGS-engineered nanoscale lipid chimeras improve the therapeutic impact of anticancer agents. This review highlights lymphatic cancer metastasis, nanoscales lipid cargoes as LDDS, and their influence on lymphatic trafficking, besides the methods of LDD studies.

Redefine the role of d-α-Tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate on P-glycoprotein, multidrug resistance protein 1, and breast cancer resistance protein mediated cancer multidrug resistance

Cancer drug resistance is an ever-changing problem that most patients need to face in their later stages of treatment, especially the multidrug resistant (MDR) type. The drug efflux transporters, including P-glycoprotein (P-gp), multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP1), and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), play the crucial roles in this sophisticated battle. In recent decades, researchers try to find potential inhibitors to impede the drug efflux function of above transporters. d-α-Tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (vitamin E TPGS) is a prevalently used excipient in the formulation design. In the present study, the modulatory effects and mechanisms of vitamin E TPGS on the efflux transporters were investigated. And the cancer MDR reversing ability of vitamin E TPGS was evaluated as well. Stable-cloned transporter over-expressed cell lines were used for mechanisms study, while several types of MDR cancer cell lines were adopted as reversing evaluation models. The results exhibited that vitamin E TPGS significantly inhibited the efflux function of P-gp, MRP1, and BCRP under non-cytotoxic concentrations, but not influencing the protein expression levels. Through efflux assay and molecular docking, vitamin E TPGS was found to be an uncompetitive, non-competitive, and competitive inhibitor on chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin efflux in P-gp, MRP1, and BCRP over-expressing cell lines, respectively. Furthermore, the basal ATPase activity of three transporters were significantly inhibited by vitamin E TPGS at 10 μM. And the cell membrane fluidity of P-gp over-expressing cell line was enhanced by 22.58% with 5 μM vitamin E TPGS treatment, compared to the parental Flp-In™-293 cell line (without P-gp). The resistance reversing ability of vitamin E TPGS was prominent in MCF-7/DOX MDR breast cancer cell line, which over-expressed P-gp, MRP1, and BCRP. These significant results suggested that vitamin E TPGS is a promising modulator on transporters mediated cancer MDR. Vitamin E TPGS is not an inert excipient, but possesses MDR-reversing pharmacological effects, and deserves a re-purposing application on the future combinatorial regimen design for MDR cancer treatment.

Targeting a xenobiotic transporter to ameliorate vincristine-induced sensory neuropathy

Vincristine is a widely used chemotherapeutic drug for the treatment of multiple malignant diseases that causes a dose-limiting peripheral neurotoxicity. There is no clinically effective preventative treatment for vincristine-induced sensory peripheral neurotoxicity (VIPN), and mechanistic details of this side effect remain poorly understood. We hypothesized that VIPN is dependent on transporter-mediated vincristine accumulation in dorsal root ganglion neurons. Using a xenobiotic transporter screen, we identified OATP1B3 as a neuronal transporter regulating the uptake of vincristine. In addition, genetic or pharmacological inhibition of the murine orthologue transporter OATP1B2 protected mice from various hallmarks of VIPN - including mechanical allodynia, thermal hyperalgesia, and changes in digital maximal action potential amplitudes and neuronal morphology - without negatively affecting plasma levels or antitumor effects of vincristine. Finally, we identified α-tocopherol from an untargeted metabolomics analysis as a circulating endogenous biomarker of neuronal OATP1B2 function, and it could serve as a companion diagnostic to guide dose selection of OATP1B-type transport modulators given in combination with vincristine to prevent VIPN. Collectively, our findings shed light on the fundamental basis of VIPN and provide a rationale for the clinical development of transporter inhibitors to prevent this debilitating side effect.

PEGylation of Phosphatidylglycerol/Docosahexaenoic Acid Hexosomes with d-α-Tocopheryl Succinate Poly(ethylene glycol)2000 Induces Morphological Transformation into Vesicles with Prolonged Circulation Times

Considering the broad therapeutic potential of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), here we study the effect of PEGylation of DHA-incorporated hexosomes on their physicochemical characteristics and biodistribution following intravenous injection into mice. Hexosomes were formed from phosphatidylglycerol and DHA with a weight ratio of 3:2. PEGylation was achieved through the incorporation of either d-α-tocopheryl succinate poly(ethylene glycol)₂₀₀₀ (TPGS-mPEG₂₀₀₀) or 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)₂₀₀₀ (DSPE-mPEG₂₀₀₀) at a concentration of 1.5 wt %. Nanoparticle tracking analysis, synchrotron small-angle scattering, and cryo-transmission electron microscopy were employed to characterize the nanodispersions. The results show that PEGylated lipids induce a structural transition from an inverse hexagonal (H₂) phase inside the nanoparticles (hexosomes) to a lamellar (L_α) phase (vesicles). We also followed the effect of mouse plasma on the nanodispersion size distribution, number, and morphology because changes brought by plasma constituents could regulate the in vivo performance of intravenously injected nanodispersions. For comparative biodistribution studies, fluorescently labeled nanodispersions of equivalent quantum yields were injected intravenously into healthy mice. TPGS-mPEG₂₀₀₀-induced vesicles were most effective in avoiding hepatosplenic clearance at early time points. In an orthotopic xenograft murine model of glioblastoma, TPGS-mPEG₂₀₀₀-induced vesicles also showed improved localization to the brain compared with native hexosomes. We discuss these observations and their implications for the future design of injectable lyotropic nonlamellar liquid crystalline drug delivery nanosystems for therapeutic interventions of brain and liver diseases.

TPGS loaded triphenyltin (IV) micelles induced apoptosis by upregulating p53 in breast cancer cells and inhibit tumor progression in T-cell lymphoma bearing mice

AIMS

Currently, breast cancer is one of the most frequently diagnosed and the second leading cause of cancer related deaths in women worldwide. Our present study aimed to investigate the major mechanistic effects of micelles (TSD-30-F, TSD-34-F) on breast cancer cells as well as their antitumor efficacy in in vivo DL bearing BALB/c mice.

METHODS

Apoptotic death by micelles was investigated by mitochondrial aggregation, membrane potential and DNA fragmentation assay in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Molecular mode of action of micelles were determined by RT-PCR and western blot analysis, drug-ligand interaction was analyzed by in silico methods, while, in vivo antitumor activity was investigated by Kaplen-Meier survival curve, T/C value, body weight and belly size of BALB/c mice.

KEY FINDINGS

TSD-30-F and TSD-34-F micelles displayed significant apoptotic induction. At molecular level, TSD-30 and TSD-34 micelles showed up-regulation of p53, Bax, Bak, Caspase-3 and down-regulation of Bcl-2 genes as well as proteins in tested breast cancer cells. In silico analysis revealed that TSD-30 and TSD-34 showed efficient binding affinity with p53, Caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2 proteins. Significant in vivo antitumor efficacy was exhibited by the micelles formulations by increasing life span with reduced bodyweight and belly size growth pattern in BALB/c mice compared to DTX-F micelles.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results suggest that triphenyltin (IV) micelles could be a very promising therapeutic candidate for treatment of breast cancer patients and occupy a new place in targeted breast cancer therapeutic.

Zein-Stabilized Nanospheres as Nanocarriers for Boosting the Aphrodisiac Activity of Icariin: Response Surface Optimization and In Vivo Assessment

Icariin (ICA), a main active compound of the Epimedium genus, is used as an aphrodisiac in traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Despite its therapeutic efficacy, ICA displays reduced oral absorption, and therefore, low bioavailability hindered its clinical application. Implementing nanotechnology in the field of formulation has been a focus to improve the efficacy of ICA. In this regard, polymeric nanoparticles find a potential application as drug delivery systems. A nanosphere formula was designed, aiming to improve the drug’s efficacy. The proposed ICA nanosphere formula (tocozeinolate) was optimized using D-optimal response surface design. The concentrations of ICA (X₁), D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS, X₂), zein (X₃), and sodium deoxycholate (SDC, X₄) expressed as percentages were investigated as quantitative independent variables. As per the experimental design, 23 formulations were developed, which were investigated for particle size (PS, nm), zeta potential (ZP, mV), and entrapment efficiency (EE, %) as response parameters. Numerical optimization and desirability approach were employed to predict the optimized variable levels that, upon combination, could result in minimized size and maximized zeta potential and ICA entrapment. The optimized ICA–tocozeinolate nanospheres showed a particle size of 224.45 nm, zeta potential of 0.961 mV, and drug entrapment of 65.29% that coincide well with the predicted values. The optimized ICA–tocozeinolate nanospheres were evaluated for sexual behavior in Wistar male rats compared to raw ICA at equivalent doses (20 mg/kg). In vivo assessment results showed significant sexual behavior enhancement by the optimized formulation, as evidenced by decreased average time of both mount latency (ML) and ejaculation latency (EL) to almost half those of raw ICA. Additionally, intromission latency (IL) time was reduced by 41% compared to the raw ICA. These results highlighted the potential of the proposed ICA–tocozeinolate nanospheres as a promising platform for improving the delivery and efficacy of therapeutic agents.

2-Methoxy-estradiol Loaded Alpha Lipoic Acid Nanoparticles Augment Cytotoxicity in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

The therapeutic effectiveness of anticancer drugs with a selective target for the nucleus of cancer cells may be improved by experimental approaches. In this regard, the formulation of anticancer drugs is considered one of the best ways to improve their effectiveness in targeting cancerous tissues. To enhance the anticancer activity of 2-methoxy-estradiol (2 ME) for breast cancer, 2-methoxyestradiol loaded alpha lipoic acid nanoparticles have been formulated. The prepared formula was observed to be spherical with a nanometer-scale and low PDI size (.234). The entrapment efficiency of the 2ME-ALA NPs was 87.32 ± 2.21% with > 85% release of 2 ME within 24 h. There was a 1.2-fold increase in apoptosis and a 3.46-fold increase in necrosis of the MCF-7 cells when incubated with 2ME-ALA NPs when compared to control cells. This increased apoptosis was also associated with increased ROS and increased p53 expression in 2ME-ALA NPs treated cells compared to the raw-2 ME group. Evaluation of cell-cycle data showed a substantial arrest of the G2-M phase of the MCF-7 cells when incubated with 2ME-ALA NPs. At the same time, a dramatically increased number of pre-G1 cells showed the increased apoptotic potential of the 2 ME when administered via the proposed formulation. In the end, the differential upregulation of caspase-3, p53, and ROS in MCF-7 cells established the superiority of the 2ME-ALA-Ms approach in targeting breast cancer. In summary, these results demonstrate that 2ME-ALA NPs are an efficient delivery tool for controlling the growth of breast cancer cells.

Tocotrienols reach the brain and play roles in the attenuation of body weight gain and improvement of cognitive function in high-fat diet-treated mice

Obesity induces severe disorders such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular events, and the number of people with obesity is increasing all over the world. Furthermore, it is possible that obesity increases the risk of cognitive dysfunction via the acceleration of oxidative damage. Tocotrienols, which are part of the vitamin E family, have antioxidant and anti-obesity effects. However, the effects of tocotrienols on high-fat diet-treated mice have not been completely elucidated. In this study, we assessed changes in body weight, spatial reference memory acquisition, liver lipid droplet size, blood brain barrier-related protein expressions and antioxidative defense systems in high-fat diet-treated mice in the presence or absence of tocotrienols. The results showed that tocotrienols significantly inhibited body weight gain and lipid droplet synthesis. Although the amount was very small, it was confirmed that tocotrienols surely reached the brain in the perfused brain. Treatment with tocotrienols was tended to improve cognitive function in the control mice. However, tocotrienols did not modulate blood brain barrier-related protein expressions or antioxidative defense systems. These results indicate that treatment with tocotrienols could be effective for the prevention of obesity and cognitive dysfunction. Further extended research is needed to elucidate the relationship between anti-obesity and antioxidant effects of tocotrienols, especially in the brain.

Resveratrol-Based Nanoformulations as an Emerging Therapeutic Strategy for Cancer

Resveratrol is a polyphenolic stilbene derivative widely present in grapes and red wine. Broadly known for its antioxidant effects, numerous studies have also indicated that it exerts anti-inflammatory and antiaging abilities and a great potential in cancer therapy. Regrettably, the oral administration of resveratrol has pharmacokinetic and physicochemical limitations such as hampering its effects so that effective administration methods are demanding to ensure its efficiency. Thus, the present review explores the published data on the application of resveratrol nanoformulations in cancer therapy, with the use of different types of nanodelivery systems. Mechanisms of action with a potential use in cancer therapy, negative effects, and the influence of resveratrol nanoformulations in different types of cancer are also highlighted. Finally, the toxicological features of nanoresveratrol are also discussed.

Vitamin E-facilitated carbon monoxide pro-drug nanomedicine for efficient light-responsive combination cancer therapy

The quest to maximize therapeutic efficiency in cancer treatment requires innovative delivery nanoplatforms capable of employing different modules simultaneously. Combination therapy has proven to be one of the best anticancer strategies so far. Herein, we have developed a lipid-encapsulated nanoplatform that combines chemotherapy with photoresponsive gas therapy for colon cancer treatment. Carbon monoxide releasing molecules (CORMs) and vitamin E analogues (pure/pegylated α-tocopheryl succinate; α-TOS) were co-loaded into the lipid layer with core-shell upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), which converted 808 nm light to 360 nm photons to trigger CO release at the tumor site. This folic acid (FA)-targeting nanomedicine (Lipid/UCNP/CORM/α-TOS/FA: LUCTF) possessed a cancer-targeting ability and a light-triggered CO release ability for synergistic apoptosis of HCT116 cells via enhanced ROS generation and mitochondrial membrane breaking. In vivo data have confirmed the significantly enhanced therapeutic efficacy of LUCTF without any significant biosafety issues after intravenous administration. Thus, nanomedicine LUCTF represents a novel way for efficient cancer therapy via combining locally released CO and a compatible chemotherapeutic agent (e.g. α-TOS).

Development, Optimization and Evaluation of 2-Methoxy-Estradiol Loaded Nanocarrier for Prostate Cancer

The therapeutic efficacy of antineoplastic agents possessing a selective target to the nucleus of the cancer cells could be enhanced through novel formulation approaches. Thus, toward the improvement of the anticancer potential of 2-methoxy estradiol (2 ME) on prostate cancer, the drug was entrapped into the hydrophobic micelles core formulated with Phospholipon 90G and d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS). Optimization of the formulation was done by Box-Behnken statistical design using Statgraphics software to standardize percentages of TPGS and phospholipid to obtain the smallest particle size. The optimized formulation was found to be spherical with nanometer size of 152 ± 5.2 nm, and low PDI (0.234). The entrapment efficiency of the micelles was 88.67 ± 3.21% with >93% release of 2 ME within 24 h. There was a 16-fold increase in apoptosis and an 8-fold increase in necrosis of the PC-3 cells when incubated with 2 ME micellar delivery compared to control cells (2.8 ± 0.2%). This increased apoptosis was further correlated with increased BAX expression (11.6 ± 0.7) and decreased BCL-2 expression (0.29 ± 0.05) in 2 ME micelles treated cells when compared to the control group. Further, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (∼50-fold) by the drug-loaded micelles and free drug compared to control cells was found to be due to the generation of ROS. Findings on cell cycle analysis revealed the significant arrest of the G2-M phase of the PC-3 cells when incubated with the optimized formulation. Simultaneously, a significantly increased number of cells in pre-G1 revealed the maximum apoptotic potential of the drug when delivered via micellar formulation. Finally, upregulation of caspase-9, p53, and NO, with downregulation of TNF-α, NF-κβ, and inflammatory mediators of the PC-3 cells established the superiority of the micellar approach against prostate cancer. In summary, the acquired results highlighted the potentiality of the 2 ME-micellar delivery tool for controlling the growth of prostate cancer cells for improved efficacy.

A Rational design of multi-functional nanoplatform: Fluorescent-based "off-on" theranostic gold nanoparticles modified with D-α-Tocopherol succinate

It is crucial to develop nanocarrier systems to detect and treat drug-resistant micro tumors to prevent recurrence and/or metastasis of cancer. Due to their exceptional features such as biocompatibility, easy surface modification, serving as imaging and therapeutic agent, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) draw attention as theranostic agents. It is beneficial to combine AuNPs with a second imaging and/or treatment modality such as photodynamic therapy (PDT). PDT is a non-mutagenic treatment approach in which photosensitizer is activated with light, generating reactive oxygen species and/or free radicals to destroy tumor cells. With the aim of developing "off-on" theranostic system, citrate stabilized spherical 13 nm AuNPs were densely coated with polyethylene glycol (PEG). To advance the theranostic feature of PEGylated AuNPs, they were further functionalized with FDA-Approved photosensitizer, Verteporfin (BPD-MA). Due to static quenching between BPD-MA and AuNPs as well as in between nearby BPD-MA molecules, the fluorescence of the ground state complex is quenched and the system is in "off" state. When BPD-MA molecules are cleaved from the AuNPs surface and diffuse away, fluorescence is recovered. Consequently, the system switches to the "on" state. Among the various mole ratios of BPD-MA carrying conjugates prepared, the most promising candidate was selected based on stability, quenching factor, and fluorescence recovery rate. The conjugate was further decorated with D-α-Tocopherol succinate (VitES) to increase the therapeutic efficacy of the theranostic agent via enhancing cellular uptake. Our results showed that it was possible to achieve as high as 80 times fluorescence quenching when the system was "off". As the system switched from "off" to "on" state, 51% of the fluorescence was recovered. When BPD-MA was immobilized on the PEGylated AuNPs, the phototoxic effect of BPD-MA increased twice against the MCF-7 cell line. Moreover, the developed system showed four times more phototoxicity than BPD-MA alone after it was decorated with VitES. Since the developed system is capable of dual imaging (computed tomography and fluorescence) and dual treatment (PDT and hyperthermia), it potentially offers superior imaging and therapy options for various types of in vitro/in vivo applications.

Vitamin E: A Review of Its Application and Methods of Detection When Combined with Implant Biomaterials

Vitamin E is a common compound used for tocopherols and tocotrienols (α, β, γ, δ); it is the component of many natural products of both plant and animal origin. Thanks to its powerful antioxidant capacity, vitamin E has been very successful in hip and knee arthroplasty, used to confer resistance to oxidation to irradiated UHMWPE. The positive results of these studies have made vitamin E an important object of research in the biomedical field, highlighting other important properties, such as anti-bacterial, -inflammatory, and -cancer activities. In fact, there is an extensive literature dealing with vitamin E in different kinds of material processing, drug delivery, and development of surface coatings. Vitamin E is widely discussed in the literature, and it is possible to find many reviews that discuss the biological role of vitamin E and its applications in food packaging and cosmetics. However, to date, there is not a review that discusses the biomedical applications of vitamin E and that points to the methods used to detect it within a solid. This review specifically aims to compile research about new biomedical applications of vitamin E carried out in the last 20 years, with the intention of providing an overview of the methodologies used to combine it with implantable biomaterials, as well as to detect and characterize it within these materials.

Endogenous and combination retinoids are active in myelomonocytic leukemias

Retinoid therapy transformed response and survival outcomes in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) but has demonstrated only modest activity in non-APL forms of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The presence of natural retinoids in vivo could influence the efficacy of pharmacologic agonists and antagonists. We found that natural RXRA ligands, but not RARA ligands, were present in murine MLL-AF9-derived myelomonocytic leukemias in vivo and that the concurrent presence of receptors and ligands acted as tumor suppressors. Pharmacologic retinoid responses could be optimized by concurrent targeting of RXR ligands (e.g., bexarotene) and RARA ligands (e.g., all-trans retinoic acid), which induced either leukemic maturation or apoptosis depending on cell culture conditions. Co-repressor release from the RARA:RXRA heterodimer occurred with RARA activation, but not RXRA activation, providing an explanation for the combination synergy. Combination synergy could be replicated in additional, but not all, AML cell lines and primary samples, and was associated with improved survival in vivo, although tolerability of bexarotene administration in mice remained an issue. These data provide insight into the basal presence of natural retinoids in leukemias in vivo and a potential strategy for clinical retinoid combination regimens in leukemias beyond APL.

D-α-Tocopherol-Based Micelles for Successful Encapsulation of Retinoic Acid

All-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) represents the first-choice treatment for several skin diseases, including epithelial skin cancer and acne. However, ATRA's cutaneous side effects, like redness and peeling, and its high instability limit its efficacy. To address these drawbacks and to improve ATRA solubilization, we prepared ATRA-loaded micelles (ATRA-TPGSs), by its encapsulation in D-α-tocopheryl-polyethylene-glycol-succinate (TPGS). First, to explore the feasibility of the project, a solubility study based on the equilibrium method was performed; then, six ATRA-TPGS formulations were prepared by the solvent-casting method using different TPGS amounts. ATRA-TPGSs showed small sizes (11-20 nm), low polydispersity, slightly negative zeta potential, and proved good encapsulation efficiency, confirmed by a chemometric-assisted Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) investigation. ATRA-TPGS stability was also investigated to choose the most stable formulation. Using Carbopol^® 980 as gelling agent, ATRA-TPGS-loaded gels were obtained and analyzed for their rheological profiles. Ex vivo release studies from ATRA-TPGSs were performed by Franz cells, demonstrating a permeation after 24 h of 22 ± 4 µ cm^-2. ATRA-TPGSs showed enhanced cytotoxic effects on melanoma cells, suggesting that these formulations may represent a valid alternative to improve patient compliance and to achieve more efficacious therapeutic outcomes.

Recent Advancements in Nanotechnology for Oral Cancer: a Review

Background:

Oral cancer is the life threatening disease causing mortality. The majority of chemotherapeutic anticancer agents are toxic to healthy tissues, have poor bioavailability and affect the quality of life of the patients.

Objective:

The main challenge in the treatment of oral cancer is the effective and safe delivery of chemotherapeutic anticancer drugs. This present review deals with the recent advancement in the nanotechnologies and its probable applications in the oral cancer treatment.

Methods:

This review includes a gist of suitable literature.

Results:

Nanotechnology brings novel methodologies or modifications in current anticancer therapies to improve individual wellbeing and survival.

Conclusion:

Nanotechnology put forward the potential of increasing the efficacy of the therapy and targeted drug delivery, which in turn increase drug absorption and bioavailability at the site of tumour. Different nanocarriers include liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, combinational (polymeric- inorganic) nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, nanolipids, hydrogels, dendrimers and polymeric micelles. This review confers development of new drug delivery approaches for effective therapeutic outcomes and abating the toxicity to healthy tissues.

Resveratrol loaded polymeric micelles for theranostic targeting of breast cancer cells

Treatment of breast cancer underwent extensive progress in recent years with molecularly targeted therapies. However, non-specific pharmaceutical approaches (chemotherapy) persist, inducing severe side-effects. Phytochemicals provide a promising alternative for breast cancer prevention and treatment. Specifically, resveratrol (res) is a plant-derived polyphenolic phytoalexin with potent biological activity but displays poor water solubility, limiting its clinical use. Here we have developed a strategy for delivering res using a newly synthesized nano-carrier with the potential for both diagnosis and treatment.

Methods: Res-loaded nanoparticles were synthesized by the emulsion method using Pluronic F127 block copolymer and Vitamin E-TPGS. Nanoparticle characterization was performed by SEM and tunable resistive pulse sensing. Encapsulation Efficiency (EE%) and Drug Loading (DL%) content were determined by analysis of the supernatant during synthesis. Nanoparticle uptake kinetics in breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 as well as in MCF-10A breast epithelial cells were evaluated by flow cytometry and the effects of res on cell viability via MTT assay.

Results: Res-loaded nanoparticles with spherical shape and a dominant size of 179±22 nm were produced. Res was loaded with high EE of 73±0.9% and DL content of 6.2±0.1%. Flow cytometry revealed higher uptake efficiency in breast cancer cells compared to the control. An MTT assay showed that res-loaded nanoparticles reduced the viability of breast cancer cells with no effect on the control cells.

Conclusions: These results demonstrate that the newly synthesized nanoparticle is a good model for the encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs. Additionally, the nanoparticle delivers a natural compound and is highly effective and selective against breast cancer cells rendering this type of nanoparticle an excellent candidate for diagnosis and therapy of difficult to treat mammary malignancies.

Doxyl Nitroxide Spin Probes Can Modify Toxicity of Doxorubicin towards Fibroblast Cells

The biological properties of doxyl stearate nitroxides (DSs): 5-DS, Met-12-DS, and 16-DS, commonly used as spin probes, have not been explored in much detail so far. Furthermore, the influence of DSs on the cellular changes induced by the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) has not yet been investigated. Therefore, we examined the cytotoxicity of DSs and their ability to induce cell death and to influence on fluidity and lipid peroxidation (LPO) in the plasma membrane of immortalised B14 fibroblasts, used as a model neoplastic cells, susceptible to DOX-induced changes. The influence of DSs on DOX toxicity was also investigated and compared with that of a natural reference antioxidant α-Tocopherol. By employing the trypan blue exclusion test and double fluorescent staining, we found a significant level of cytotoxicity for DSs and showed that their ability to induce apoptosis and modify plasma membrane fluidity (measured fluorimetrically) is more potent than for α-Tocopherol. The most cytotoxic nitroxide was 5-DS. The electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements revealed that 5-DS was reduced in B14 cells at the fastest and Met-12-DS at the slowest rate. In the presence of DOX, DSs were reduced slower than alone. The investigated compounds, administered with DOX, enhanced DOX-induced cell death and demonstrated concentration-dependent biphasic influence on membrane fluidity. A-Tocopherol showed weaker effects than DSs, regardless the mode of its application—alone or with DOX. High concentrations of α-Tocopherol and DSs decreased DOX-induced LPO. Substantial cytotoxicity of the DSs suggests that they should be used more carefully in the investigations performed on sensitive cells. Enhancement of DOX toxicity by DSs showed their potential to act as chemosensitizers of cancer cells to anthracycline chemotherapy.

In Vitro-In Silico Modeling Approach to Rationally Designed Simple and Versatile Drug Delivery Systems

Rational design and development of a nanosystem usually relies on empirical approaches as well as a fair degree of serendipity. Understanding how nanosystems behave at the molecular level is of great importance for potential biomedical applications. In this work, we describe a nanosystem composed of two natural compounds, vitamin E and sphingomyelin, prepared by spontaneous emulsification (vitamin E-sphingomyelin nanosystems (VSNs)). Extensive characterization revealed suitable physicochemical properties, very high biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo, and colloidal stability during storage and in biological media, all relevant properties for clinical translation. We have additionally pursued a computational approach to gain an improved understanding of the assembling, structure, dynamics, and drug-loading capacity of VSNs, using both small molecules and biomolecules (resveratrol, curcumin, gemcitabine, and two peptides). The spontaneous formation of compartmentalized VSNs starting from completely disassembled molecules, observed here for the first time, was accurately assessed from the computational molecular dynamics trajectories. We describe here a synergistic in silico/in vitro approach showing the predictive power of computational simulations for VSNs' structural characterization and description of internal interaction mechanisms responsible for the association of bioactive molecules, representing a paradigm shift in the rational design of nanotechnologies as drug delivery systems for advanced personalized medicine.

Improvising anti-leishmanial activity of amphotericin B and paromomycin using co-delivery in d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) tailored nano-lipid carrier system

In the current study, we have focused on the design, development and in-vitro evaluation of d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate modified amphotericin B (AmB) and paromomycin (PM) loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (TPGS-SLNPs) by emulsion-solvent evaporation method. The optimized TPGS-SLNPs had a mean particle size of 199.4 ± 18.9 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.22 ± 0.14 and entrapment efficiency for AmB and PM was found to be 94 ± 1.5 % and 89 ± 0.50 % respectively. The prepared lipid nanoparticles were characterized by Powdered X-ray diffraction study, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to confirm the absence of any interaction between lipids and drugs. The developed formulation showed a sustained drug release over a period of 48 h and were stable at different temperatures. Finally, TPGS-SLNPs (1 μg/mL) was found to significantly (P < 0.001) mitigate the intra-cellular amastigote growth compared to free AmB. The results obtained suggest TPGS-SLNPs could be an efficient carrier for delivering poorly water-soluble drugs and efficiently enhance its therapeutic potential.

A Multicenter Retrospective Study to Evaluate Safety and Efficacy of Tocopheryl Polyethylene Glycol Succinate Docetaxel in Various Cancers

In order to overcome the polysorbate induced hypersensitivity reactions with chemotherapy drugs, novel drug-delivery mechanisms have been developed in the last decade. D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS) is formed by esterification of alpha-tocopheryl succinate and polyethylene glycol 1000.

This was a real-world retrospective analysis designed to evaluate safety and efficacy of TPGS-docetaxel in various cancers. Patients hospitalized between June 2018 and May 2019 were included in the data set. While the efficacy was assessed by the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors criteria, safety was assessed by the National Cancer Institute Common Terminology Criteria-adverse event (AE) criteria.

A total of 61 patients who received at least one dose of TPGS-docetaxel were incorporated into the analysis set. The dose of TPGS docetaxel ranged from 20 mg/m2 to 120 mg/m2, commonly prescribed dose being 75 mg/m2. While 25 (40.98%) patients had a partial response, 17 (27.86%) patients had stable disease. Five (8.19%) patients progressed and 4 (6.55%) patients died during the chemotherapy, which was adjudicated to be unrelated to the drug as opined by the treating clinician. AE were reported in 42 patients in the safety data set. There were no AEs pertaining to hypersensitivity reported during the study. One AE of Grade 3 hand foot syndrome was encountered.

The preliminary evidence suggests that the novel TPGS-based docetaxel formulation is efficacious in various cancers, and importantly, it has an enhanced safety profile, as it is devoid of polysorbate 80 induced hypersensitivity reactions.

Alpha-tocopheryl succinate improves encapsulation, pH-sensitivity, antitumor activity and reduces toxicity of doxorubicin-loaded liposomes

Doxorubicin (DOX) plays an important role in cancer treatment; however, high cardiotoxicity and low penetration in solid tumors are the main limitations of its use. Liposomal formulations have been developed to attenuate the DOX toxicity, but the technological enhancement of the liposomal formulation as well as the addition of another agent with antitumor properties, like alpha-tocopheryl succinate (TS), a semi-synthetic analog of vitamin E, could certainly bring benefits. Thus, in this study, it was proposed the development of liposomes composed of DOX and TS (pHSL-TS-DOX). A new DOX encapsulation method, without using the classic ammonium sulfate gradient with high encapsulation percentage was developed. Analysis of Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) and release study proved the pH-sensitivity of the developed formulation. It was observed stabilization of tumor growth using pHSL-TS-DOX when compared to free DOX. The toxicity tests showed the safety of this formulation since it allowed body weight initial recovery after the treatment and harmless to heart and liver, main target organs of DOX toxicity. The developed formulation also avoided the occurrence of myelosuppression, a typical adverse effect of DOX. Therefore, pHSL-TS-DOX is a promising alternative for the treatment of breast cancer since it has adequate antitumor activity and a safe toxicity profile.

Non-Lamellar Liquid Crystalline Nanocarriers for Thymoquinone Encapsulation

Owing to their unique structural features, non-lamellar liquid crystalline nanoparticles comprising cubosomes and hexosomes are attracting increasing attention as versatile investigative drug carriers. Background: Depending on their physiochemical characteristics, drug molecules on entrapment can modulate and reorganize structural features of cubosomes and hexosomes. Therefore, it is important to assess the effect of guest molecules on broader biophysical characteristics of non-lamellar liquid crystalline nanoparticles, since drug-induced architectural, morphological, and size modifications can affect the biological performance of cubosomes and hexosomes. Methods: We report on alterations in morphological, structural, and size characteristics of nanodispersions composed from binary mixtures of glycerol monooleate and vitamin E on thymoquinone (a molecule with wide therapeutic potentials) loading. Results: Thymoquinone loading was associated with a slight increase in the mean hydrodynamic nanoparticle size and led to structural transitions from an internal biphasic feature of coexisting inverse cubic Fd3m and hexagonal (H₂) phases to an internal inverse cubic Fd3m phase (micellar cubosomes) or an internal inverse micellar (L₂) phase (emulsified microemulsions, EMEs). We further report on the presence of “flower-like” vesicular populations in both native and drug-loaded nanodispersions. Conclusions: These nanodispersions have the potential to accommodate thymoquinone and may be considered as promising platforms for the development of thymoquinone nanomedicines.

Iron Transport Tocopheryl Polyethylene Glycol Succinate in Animal Health and Diseases

Gut health is the starting place for maintaining the overall health of an animal. Strategies to maintain gut health are, thus, an important part in achieving the goal of improving animal health. A new strategy to do this involves two molecules: the iron transport protein ovotransferrin (IT) and α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS), which result in the novel formulation of ITPGS. These molecules help reduce gut pathogens, while enhancing the absorption and bioavailability of therapeutic drugs, phytomedicines, and nanomedicines. This, in turn, helps to maintain normal health in animals. Maintaining the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in its normal condition is key for successful absorption and efficacy of any nutrient. A compromised GIT, due to an imbalance (dysbiosis) in the GIT microbiome, can lead to an impaired GI barrier system with impaired absorption and overall health of the animal. The molecules in ITPGS may address the issue of poor absorption by keeping the GI system healthy by maintaining the normal microbiome and improving the absorption of nutrients through multiple mechanisms involving antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial activities. The ITPGS technology can allow the dose of active pharmaceutical or herbal medicine to be significantly reduced in order to attain equal or better efficacy. With complimentary actions between IT and TPGS, ITPGS presents a novel approach to increase the bioavailability of drugs, phytoconstituents, nutrients, and nanomedicines by enhanced transport to the tissues at the site of action, while reducing gut pathogen load. The ITPGS approach appears to be a novel strategy for maintaining the health of animals by manipulation of microbiota.

d-a-Tocopheryl Polyethylene Glycol 1000 Succinate and a small-molecule Survivin suppressant synergistically induce apoptosis in SKBR3 breast cancer cells

Breast cancer is the second in mortality rate malignancy among women. Despite the many advances in breast cancer treatment, there is still a need to improve drug efficacy and reduce non-specific effects. D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS) is frequently used in the development of drug delivery systems to improve the pharmacokinetics of anti-cancer drugs and reduce multi-drug resistance. We have previously shown that TPGS not only acts as a carrier molecule but also exerts anti-cancer effects. As part of this study, we investigated the effect of TPGS with YM155, a small molecule suppressant of Survivin, in various breast cancer cell lines representing different subtypes of the disease. We aimed to evaluate the presumed synergistic effect of the TPGS-YM155 combination and reveal its mechanism of action. Our results show that the TPGS-YM155 combination acts synergistically to reduce specifically the viability of SKBR3 cells. The combination of these agents reduced activation of the AKT pathway, decreased Survivin and Bcl-2 levels, and induced caspase-dependent and independent apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway. Importantly, the TPGS-YM155 combination did not significantly affect the viability of MCF-10A normal immortalized cells. In conclusion, the combination of YM155 and TPGS could be a promising approach against SKBR3-type breast cancer.

Contribution of Molecular Structure to Self-Assembling and Biological Properties of Bifunctional Lipid-Like 4-(N-Alkylpyridinium)-1,4-Dihydropyridines

The design of nanoparticle delivery materials possessing biological activities is an attractive strategy for the development of various therapies. In this study, 11 cationic amphiphilic 4-(N-alkylpyridinium)-1,4-dihydropyridine (1,4-DHP) derivatives differing in alkyl chain length and propargyl moiety/ties number and position were selected for the study of their self-assembling properties, evaluation of their cytotoxicity in vitro and toxicity on microorganisms, and the characterisation of their interaction with phospholipids. These lipid-like 1,4-DHPs have been earlier proposed as promising nanocarriers for DNA delivery. We have revealed that the mean diameter of freshly prepared nanoparticles varied from 58 to 513 nm, depending upon the 4-(N-alkylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP structure. Additionally, we have confirmed that only nanoparticles formed by 4-(N-dodecylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivatives 3 and 6, and by 4-(N-hexadecylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivatives 10 and 11 were stable after two weeks of storage. The nanoparticles of these compounds were found to be homogenous in size distribution, ranging from 124 to 221 nm. The polydispersity index (PDI) values of 1,4-DHPs samples 3, 6, 10, and 11 were in the range of 0.10 to 0.37. We also demonstrated that the nanoparticles formed by 4-(N-dodecylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivatives 3, 6, and 9, and 4-(N-hexadecylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivatives 10 and 11 had zeta-potentials from +26.07 mV (compound 6) to +62.80 mV (compound 11), indicating a strongly positive surface charge and confirming the relative electrostatic stability of these nanoparticle solutions. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of nanoaggregates formed by 1,4-DHPs 3 and 11 confirmed liposome-like structures with diameters around 70 to 170 nm. The critical aggregation concentration (CAC) value interval for 4-(N-alkylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP was from 7.6 µM (compound 11) to 43.3 µM (compound 6). The tested 4-(N-alkylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivatives were able to quench the fluorescence of the binary 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH)—1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) system, demonstrating hydrophobic interactions of 1,4-DHPs with phospholipids. Thus, 4-(N-dodecylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivative 3 quenched the fluorescence of the DPH–DPPC system more efficiently than the other 4-(N-alkylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivatives. Likewise the compound 3, also 4-(N-dodecylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivative 9 interacted with the phospholipids. Moreover, we have established that increasing the length of the alkyl chain at the quaternised nitrogen of the 4-(N-alkylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP molecule or the introduction of propargyl moieties in the 1,4-DHP molecule significantly influences the cytotoxicity on HT-1080 (human fibrosarcoma) and MH-22A (mouse hepatocarcinoma) cell lines, as well as the estimated basal cytotoxicity. Additionally, it was demonstrated that the toxicity of the 4-(N-alkylpyridinium)-1,4-DHP derivatives on the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria species and eukaryotic microorganism depended on the presence of the alkyl chain length at the N-alkyl pyridinium moiety, as well as the number of propargyl groups. These lipid-like compounds may be proposed for the further development of drug formulations to be used in cancer treatment.

Vitamin E synthetic derivate-TPGS-selectively induces apoptosis in jurkat t cells via oxidative stress signaling pathways: implications for acute lymphoblastic leukemia

D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) is a water-soluble derivative of natural vitamin E commonly used as a drug delivery agent. Recently, TPGS alone has been reported to induce cell death in lung, breast and prostate cancer. However, the effect of TPGS on cancer cell viability remains unclear. Thus, this study was aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic effect of TPGS on human periphral blood lymphocytes (PBL) and on T cell acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) Jurkat clone E6-1 cells and its possible mechanism of action. PBL and Jurkat cells were treated with TPGS (10, 20, 40, 60, and 80 μM), and morphological changes in the cell nucleus, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and intracellular reactive oxygen species levels were determined by immune-fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. Cellular apoptosis markers were also evaluated by immunocytochemistry. In this study, TPGS induced apoptotic cell death in Jurkat cells, but not in PBL, in a dose-response manner with increasing nuclear DNA fragmentation, increasing cell cycle arrest, and decreasing ΔΨm. Additionally, TPGS increased dichlorofluorescein fluorescence intensity, indicative of H2O2 production, in a dose-independent fashion. TPGS increased DJ-1 Cys(106)-sulfonate, as a marker of intracellular stress and induced the activation of NF-κB, p53 and c-Jun transcription factors. Additionally, it increased the expression of apoptotic markers Bcl-2 related pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and PUMAand activated caspase-3. The antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine and known pharmacological inhibitors protected the cells from the TPGS induced effects. In conclusion, TPGS selectively induces apoptosis in Jurkat cells through two independent but complementary H2O2-mediated signaling pathways. Our findings support the use of TPGS as a potential treatment for ALL.

Nanobody-Based Delivery Systems for Diagnosis and Targeted Tumor Therapy

The development of innovative targeted therapeutic approaches are expected to surpass the efficacy of current forms of treatments and cause less damage to healthy cells surrounding the tumor site. Since the first development of targeting agents from hybridoma’s, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have been employed to inhibit tumor growth and proliferation directly or to deliver effector molecules to tumor cells. However, the full potential of such a delivery strategy is hampered by the size of mAbs, which will obstruct the targeted delivery system to access the tumor tissue. By serendipity, a new kind of functional homodimeric antibody format was discovered in camelidae, known as heavy-chain antibodies (HCAbs). The cloning of the variable domain of HCAbs produces an attractive minimal-sized alternative for mAbs, referred to as VHH or nanobodies (Nbs). Apart from their dimensions in the single digit nanometer range, the unique characteristics of Nbs combine a high stability and solubility, low immunogenicity and excellent affinity and specificity against all possible targets including tumor markers. This stimulated the development of tumor-targeted therapeutic strategies. Some autonomous Nbs have been shown to act as antagonistic drugs, but more importantly, the targeting capacity of Nbs has been exploited to create drug delivery systems. Obviously, Nb-based targeted cancer therapy is mainly focused toward extracellular tumor markers, since the membrane barrier prevents antibodies to reach the most promising intracellular tumor markers. Potential strategies, such as lentiviral vectors and bacterial type 3 secretion system, are proposed to deliver target-specific Nbs into tumor cells and to block tumor markers intracellularly. Simultaneously, Nbs have also been employed for in vivo molecular imaging to diagnose diseased tissues and to monitor the treatment effects. Here, we review the state of the art and focus on recent developments with Nbs as targeting moieties for drug delivery systems in cancer therapy and cancer imaging.

Recent advances in TPGS-based nanoparticles of docetaxel for improved chemotherapy

Docetaxel (DTX) is one of the important antitumor drugs, being used in several common chemotherapies to control leading cancer types. Severe toxicities of the DTX are prominent due to sudden parenteral exposure of desired loading dose to maintain the therapeutic concentration. Field of nanotechnology is leading to resist sudden systemic exposure of DTX with more specific delivery to the site of cancer. Further nanometric size range of the formulation aid for prolonged circulation, thereby extensive exposure results better efficacy. In this article, we extensively reviewed the therapeutic benefit of incorporating d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (vitamin E TPGS, or simply TPGS) in the nanoparticle (NP) formulation of DTX for improved delivery, tumor control and tolerability. TPGS is well accepted nonionic-ampiphilic polymer which has been identified in the role of emulsifier, stabilizer, penetration enhancer, solubilizer and in protection in micelle. Simultaneously, P-glycoprotein inhibitory activity of TPGS in the multidrug resistant (MDR) cancer cells along with its apoptotic potential are the added advantage of TPGS to be incorporated in nano-chemotherapeutics. Thus, it could be concluded that TPGS based nanoparticulate application is an advanced approach to improve therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents by better internalization and sustained retention of the NPs.

Tocotrienols: the unsaturated sidekick shifting new paradigms in vitamin E therapeutics

Vitamin E family members: tocotrienols and tocopherols are widely known for their health benefits. Decades of research on tocotrienols have shown they have diverse biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, neuroprotective and skin protection benefits, as well as improved cognition, bone health, longevity and reduction of cholesterol levels in plasma. Tocotrienols also modulate several intracellular molecular targets and, most importantly, have been shown to improve lipid profiles, reduce total cholesterol and reduce the volume of white matter lesions in human clinical trials. This review provides a comprehensive update on the little-known therapeutic potentials of tocotrienols, which tocopherols lack in a variety of inflammation-driven diseases.

Impact of Lipid Phase on the Bioavailability of Vitamin E in Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems: Relative Importance of Bioaccessibility, Absorption, and Transformation

A simulated gastrointestinal tract/Caco-2 cell culture model was used to investigate the effects of lipid phase type on vitamin E (VE) bioavailability. Oil-in-water emulsions fortified with α-tocopherol acetate were fabricated using a natural emulsifier (quillaja saponin) and long or medium chain triglycerides (LCTs or MCTs) as lipids. The impact of lipid type on VE bioaccessibility, absorption, and transformation was determined. VE bioaccessibility was greater for LCT (46%) than MCT (19%) due to greater solubilization in mixed micelles assembled from longer fatty acids. VE absorption by Caco-2 cells was similar for LCT (28%) and MCT (30%). The transformation of α-tocopherol acetate to α-tocopherol was higher for LCT (90%) than MCT (75%) due to differences in esterase accessibility to VE. Emulsion-based delivery systems formulated using LCT are therefore more suitable for encapsulating and delivering vitamin E than those formulated using MCT.

Pharmacological Intervention in Hepatic Stellate Cell Activation and Hepatic Fibrosis

The activation and transdifferentiation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) into contractile, matrix-producing myofibroblasts (MFBs) are central events in hepatic fibrogenesis. These processes are driven by autocrine- and paracrine-acting soluble factors (i.e., cytokines and chemokines). Proof-of-concept studies of the last decades have shown that both the deactivation and removal of hepatic MFBs as well as antagonizing profibrogenic factors are in principle suitable to attenuate ongoing hepatic fibrosis. Although several drugs show potent antifibrotic activities in experimental models of hepatic fibrosis, there is presently no effective pharmaceutical intervention specifically approved for the treatment of liver fibrosis. Pharmaceutical interventions are generally hampered by insufficient supply of drugs to the diseased liver tissue and/or by adverse effects as a result of affecting non-target cells. Therefore, targeted delivery systems that bind specifically to receptors solely expressed on activated HSCs or transdifferentiated MFBs and delivery systems that can improve drug distribution to the liver in general are urgently needed. In this review, we summarize current strategies for targeted delivery of drugs to the liver and in particular to pro-fibrogenic liver cells. The applicability and efficacy of sequestering molecules, selective protein carriers, lipid-based drug vehicles, viral vectors, transcriptional targeting approaches, therapeutic liver- and HSC-specific nanoparticles, and miRNA-based strategies are discussed. Some of these delivery systems that had already been successfully tested in experimental animal models of ongoing hepatic fibrogenesis are expected to translate into clinically useful therapeutics specifically targeting HSCs.

Intravenous administration of trans-resveratrol-loaded TPGS-coated solid lipid nanoparticles for prolonged systemic circulation, passive brain targeting and improved in vitro cytotoxicity against C6 glioma cell lines

trans-Resveratrol (RSV), a natural molecule isolated from red wine, is widely known for several therapeutic potentials.

How can nanomedicines overcome cellular-based anticancer drug resistance?

This review discusses the mechanisms of anticancer drug resistance according to its cellular level of action and outlines the nanomedicine-based strategies adopted to overcome it.