The Effectiveness of Aromatherapy in Reducing Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The effects of aromatherapy massage given to patients after colorectal cancer surgery on symptom management: A randomized controlled study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

It was aimed to investigate the effects of massage with or without aromatherapy given to patients after colorectal cancer surgery on symptom management in the first three postoperative days.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was carried out with a pretest-posttest randomized controlled design. The study included the aromatherapy massage group (AG; n = 30), the classical massage group (MG; n = 30), and one control group (CG; n = 30). A blend of sweet almond oil, lavender, chamomile, and ginger oil was used in AG. Massage was applied to the foot area, and 20 min of classical massage was performed. Before the pretest, the participants were blinded by not informing them about their group allocations. The analyses were carried out using parametric methods.

RESULTS

Postoperative pain varied significantly over time in all three groups (AG: p = 0.007; η2 = 0.150/MG: p = 0.008; η2 = 0.559/CG: p = 0.017; η2 = 0.132). Anxiety was found to differ between CG and AG and between CG and MG (p < 0.05). In all three groups, nausea-vomiting scores significantly decreased over time (AG: p = 0.002; η2 = 0.211/MG: p = 0.004; η2 = 0.164/CG: p = 0.021; η2 = 0.125). Sleep quality was significantly higher in the massage groups than in the control group only on the second postoperative day (p = 0.011).

CONCLUSION

Aromatherapy massage had no significant effect on pain, fatigue, nausea, or vomiting compared to MG and CG, and sleep quality was higher in the massage groups compared to CG only on the second postoperative day. On the first three postoperative days, the post-intervention anxiety levels of AG and MG were lower than those of CG.

CLINICALTRIALS

GOV.ID: NCT04810299.

Effects of inhalation of peppermint oil after lumbar discectomy surgery on pain and anxiety levels of patients: A randomized controlled study

AIM

This study was conducted to analyze the effects of the inhalation of peppermint oil after lumbar discectomy surgery on the pain and anxiety levels of patients.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

This study was performed as a randomized controlled trial from September 2022 to June 2023 with 68 patients (34 patients in the experimental group and 34 patients in the control group). A Patient Information Form, the Numerical Pain Rating Scale, and the State Anxiety Inventory were used in the data collection process. The researcher administered the Patient Information Form to the patients before they underwent surgery. The State Anxiety Inventory and the Numerical Pain Rating Scale were administered to the patients after the second hour in the postoperative period. Next, for 10 minutes, only the patients in the experimental group inhaled five drops of peppermint oil dripped on a sterile gauze pad whereas no intervention was administered to the patients in the control group. Then, the State Anxiety Inventory and the Numerical Pain Rating Scale were administered again to the patients in both groups successively after the third and fourth hours in the postoperative period.

RESULTS

After the second hour in the postoperative period, the difference between the mean pain or state anxiety levels of the two groups were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). On the other hand, after the third and fourth hours in the postoperative period, the differences between the two groups were statistically significant (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

It was concluded that the inhalation of peppermint oil after lumbar discectomy surgery reduced pain and anxiety levels.

Enhancing placebo analgesia: Unravelling the powerful interplay of ownership and verbal suggestion

BACKGROUND

Placebo analgesic research demonstrates pain reduction after using a placebo analgesic. Recent studies have documented that sometimes possessing a placebo analgesic induces placebo analgesia. These prior studies used a 'cream' as the stimulus and proposed that the effect is driven by an expectancy of obtaining benefits from the owned analgesic. This paper examines three pivotal components of placebo analgesia: placebo form, ownership and expectancy induced by verbal suggestion. We investigate analgesic expectancy between cream versus oil form of placebo stimulus and systematically isolate the effects of ownership, verbal suggestion and their interaction, comparing with the effect of use, to decipher the dynamics of placebo analgesia.

METHODS

Study 1 (N = 46) evaluated analgesic expectancy between cream and oil. Study 2 (N = 119) exposed participants to a placebo analgesic oil and randomized them into PU (possess and use), PA (possess and anticipate), P (possess-only) or A (anticipate-only) conditions. Pain outcomes were assessed using a cold pressor test. Comparing PA and P conditions assessed the verbal suggestion effect, comparing PA and A conditions evaluated the possession effect, while comparing PU and PA conditions shed light on the use effect.

RESULTS

In Study 1, participants showed comparable analgesic expectancy for cream and oil. In Study 2, both PA and PU groups performed equally well, reporting higher pain threshold, F(3, 115) = 5.14, p = 0.002,η p 2 $$ {\eta}_p^2 $$  = 0.12; and a greater probability of persistent hand submersion than P and A groups, X2(3) = 8.06, p = 0.045.

CONCLUSION

The findings highlight the significance of integrating possession with expectancy to induce placebo analgesia, which has clinical implications.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study delves into the intricate dynamics of placebo analgesia, shedding light on the significant influence of ownership and verbal suggestion. Through a meticulous exploration of the relationship between ownership and expectancy induced by verbal suggestion, we propose novel avenues for enhancing placebo responses. This research has implications for clinical practice and pain management strategies, potentially revolutionizing approaches to pain relief and therapeutic outcomes. Our findings contribute to a paradigm shift in understanding placebo analgesia, emphasizing the pivotal interaction between ownership and verbal suggestion.

Molecular mechanisms underlying cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity and the potential ameliorative effects of essential oils: A comprehensive review

Since the Middle Ages, essential oils (EO) have been widely used for bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, insecticidal, medicinal and cosmetic applications, nowadays in pharmaceutical, agricultural and food industries. Recently, EO have emerged as promising adjuvant therapies to mitigate the toxicities induced by anti - cancerous drugs; among them cisplatin induced renal damage amelioration remain remarkable. Cisplatin (cis-diaminedichloroplatinum II, CDDP) is renowned as one of the most effective anti-neoplastic agents, widely used as a broad-spectrum anti-tumor agent for various solid tumors. However, its clinical use is hampered by several side effects, notably nephrotoxicity and acute kidney injury, which arise from the accumulation of CDDP in the proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs). To better understand and analyze the molecular mechanisms of CDDP-induced renal damage, it is crucial to investigate potential interventions to protect against cisplatin-mediated nephrotoxicity. These EO have shown the ability to counteract oxidative stress, reduce inflammation, prevent apoptosis, and exert estrogenic effects, all contributing to renal protection. In this review, we have made an effort to summarize the molecular mechanisms and exploring new interventions by which we can pave the way for safer and more effective cancer management in the future.

Transitional Pain Service: Optimizing Complex Surgical Patients

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The care of patients with complex postsurgical pain can be challenging and burdensome for the healthcare system. Transitional pain service (TPS) is a relatively new concept and has not been widely adopted in the USA. This article explores the benefits and barriers of transitional pain services and describes the development of a TPS at our institution.

RECENT FINDINGS

Evidence from a few institutions that have adopted TPS has shown decreased postsurgical opioid consumption for patients on chronic opioids and decreased incidence of chronic postsurgical opioid use for opioid-naïve patients. The development of a transitional pain service may improve outcomes for these complex patients by providing longitudinal and multidisciplinary perioperative pain care. In this article, we describe the implementation of a TPS at a tertiary medical center. Our TPS model involves a multidisciplinary team of anesthesiologists, pain psychologists, surgeons, and advanced practice providers. We provide longitudinal care, including preoperative education and optimization; perioperative multimodal analgesic care; and longitudinal follow-up for 90 days post-procedure. With our TPS service, we aim to reduce long-term opioid use and improve functional outcomes for our patients.

Alleviating effect of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and its major components on postherpetic pain: a randomized blinded controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) causes severe pain which can lead to decreased quality-of-life. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of inhalation of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) oil and its major components (linalool and linalyl acetate) on the pain in patients with PHN.

METHODS

This study was performed at an outpatient clinic. Sixty-four patients with postherpetic neuralgia were randomly allocated to a control group (almond oil) or one of three experimental groups (lavender oil, linalool, or linalyl acetate diluted in almond oil at concentration of 1% v/v), and the participants inhaled the aroma by natural breathing. Quality, severity, and intensity of pain were measured before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Six patients discontinued the intervention for personal reasons; hence, data from 58 patients were analyzed (control group, n = 14; 1% lavender oil group, n = 15; 1% linalool, n = 15; 1% linalyl acetate, n = 14). Reduction in sensory pain was greater in the 1% lavender oil group, 1% linalool group, and 1% linalyl acetate group than in the control group (all P < 0.001). Reduction in affective pain was greater in the 1% lavender group (P < 0.001) and the 1% linalool group (P = 0.007) than in the control group. Decreases in pain severity and intensity were significantly greater in all three intervention groups than in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhalation of lavender oil and its major volatile components effectively reduced the quality, severity, and intensity of postherpetic pain, suggesting that lavender oil, linalool, and linalyl acetate may each be an effective intervention for reducing pain in patients with postherpetic neuralgia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study was retrospectively registered on the Clinical Research Information Service.

REGISTRATION NUMBER

KCT0007772, first registration 06/10/2022.

The effect of rose oil aromatherapy and hand-holding on pain due to peripheral intravenous catheter insertion

INTRODUCTION

The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of rose oil (Rosa Damascene Mill.) aromatherapy and hand-holding in reducing pain associated with peripheral intravenous catheter insertion.

METHODS

A comparative mixed-method design. A total of 126 patients were included in the study. For the study's quantitative data, sociodemographic characteristics of the patients and the Patient Interview Form for the qualitative data of the Numeric Rating Scale were used. In all patients included in the study, PIVC insertion was performed a single time by the same nurse using a standard procedure. Chi-square and Bonferroni tests were used for comparative statistics.

RESULTS

No statistically significant difference between the groups regarding age, gender, marital status, BMI, and education level (p>0.05). Pain scores: it was 2.40±1.78 in the rose oil group, 3.53±1.98 in the hand-holding group, and 4.88±1.56 in the control group. The difference between the groups regarding pain scores is statistically significant (p=0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The study determined that rose oil aromatherapy and hand-holding interventions reduce pain during PIVC. However, rose oil aromatherapy was more effective on pain than the hand-holding intervention. (Clinical Trial ID: NCT05425849).

A Pharmacotherapeutic Approaches for Managing Labour Pain Using Synthetic Drugs and Natural Therapies

The birth of a child is a critical and potentially traumatic experience for women, entailing multiple physiological and psychosocial changes. The psychological effects of childbirth pain can have both immediate and long-term effects on the mother's health and her bond with her child. Many studies investigated the different ranges of synthetic drugs available for pain control in labour, inclusive of neuraxial analgesics, inhaled analgesics, and various opioids. The inadequate efficacy and unfavourable side effects of these synthetic drugs prevent appropriate pharmacotherapy, resulting in a quest for natural therapies for reducing labour pain. Herbal therapies (aromatherapy) using several essential oils obtained from various natural plants are another alternative that calms and manages the mind and body through aromatic compounds that have neurological and physiological effects. The review discussed the safety profile of various synthetic drugs with their dosage information and also deliberated on the mechanism and safety profile of various natural plants that are used in aromatherapy. The review also briefly highlighted the other non-pharmacological miscellaneous techniques such as TENS, hypnosis, immersion in water, acupuncture, massage, and different other tactics that aim to assist women in coping with pain in labour.

Randomized Controlled Study in the Use of Aromatherapy for Pain Reduction and to Reduce Opioid Use in the Emergency Department

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of aromatherapy on emergency department patients' perception of pain and its ability to reduce the use of opioids in an emergency department.

METHODS

This randomized, controlled, single-blinded study was conducted in a suburban/rural freestanding emergency department with a therapeutic group, sham group, and control group.

RESULTS

A total of 230 patients, 171 females and 59 males, completed the study. Of those who received the therapeutic agent, an average reduction in pain of 1.04 points on the pain scale was reported, whereas the sham group averaged 0.38 and the control group 0.23. There was a statistically significant reduction of pain scores in the therapeutic group. A total of 13 received opioid pain medication during their visit. Of these, the therapeutic group averaged a total of 2.67 morphine milligram equivalents for their visit compared with 3.63 in the sham group and 4.36 in the control group; however, statistical significance was not achieved.

DISCUSSION

This study supported what other studies have found, indicating that aromatherapy is effective in reducing pain. A difference between the placebo effect and a true therapeutic effect was seen by using a control group apart from the sham and therapeutic groups. Despite the small effect size (0.3), implementation of aromatherapy into standard practice may be practical considering the anxiolytic effects that have been shown in other studies. Aromatherapy with essential oils should be considered as another tool to use in a multimodal approach in the treatment of pain in the emergency department setting.

Effectiveness of virtual reality in reducing preoperative anxiety in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIM

To evaluate the impact of a virtual reality (VR) intervention on adult patients' preoperative anxiety, heart rate, respiration rate and blood pressure.

DESIGN

A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

DATA SOURCES

A librarian-designed search of the Cochrane Library, PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL, CBM, CNKI and Wanfang databases was conducted to identify research studies in English or Chinese on RCTs from their inception to 31 May 2022. Detailed search strategies and the checklist are provieded in Supplementary files S1 and S2.

REVIEW METHODS

Two researchers independently screened eligible studies. The Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions was used to assess the risk of bias in the included studies. A fixed- or random-effects meta-analysis model was used to determine the pooled mean difference based on the results of the heterogeneity test.

RESULTS

This study included 11 articles with a total of 892 participants. VR distraction comprised five studies, and VR exposure consisted of six studies. The results indicated that VR could reduce preoperative anxiety in adult patients and VR exposure seems to be more effective. The results also indicated that VR intervention can effectively reduce patients' heart rate and blood pressure compared to traditional intervention methods, but had no significant effect on respiration rate.

CONCLUSION

VR technology could relieve preoperative anxiety in adult patients through distraction or exposure. More well-designed RCTs containing a wider range of surgical types are needed to verify our findings before we can make strong recommendations.

IMPACT

Our systematic review and meta-analysis show a positive effect of VR distraction and exposure interventions in reducing preoperative anxiety in adult patients. We suggest incorporating VR into preoperative procedures as an auxiliary way to reduce negative emotions in eligible patients.

NO PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

Our paper is a systematic review and meta-analysis and such details do not apply to our work.

The Impact of Postoperative Patient Aromatherapy on Nurse Self-Efficacy

ABSTRACT

A nurse-driven aromatherapy program investigated the effect on nurses' self-efficacy when using an essential oil inhalation protocol to reduce patients' postoperative pain and associated symptoms. After viewing an investigator-developed training module, staff nurses implemented aromatherapy. Results of changes in nurses' report of self-efficacy were evaluated using the Self-Efficacy in Providing Non-Drug therapies (SEND) survey tool. Results support that an integrated approach of adding nonpharmacologic pain management to postoperative pain and nausea care may increase nurse self-efficacy.

Regulation of brain cognitive states through auditory, gustatory, and olfactory stimulation with wearable monitoring

Inspired by advances in wearable technologies, we design and perform human-subject experiments. We aim to investigate the effects of applying safe actuation (i.e., auditory, gustatory, and olfactory) for the purpose of regulating cognitive arousal and enhancing the performance states. In two proposed experiments, subjects are asked to perform a working memory experiment called n-back tasks. Next, we incorporate listening to different types of music, drinking coffee, and smelling perfume as safe actuators. We employ signal processing methods to seamlessly infer participants' brain cognitive states. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed safe actuation in regulating the arousal state and enhancing performance levels. Employing only wearable devices for human monitoring and using safe actuation intervention are the key components of the proposed experiments. Our dataset fills the existing gap of the lack of publicly available datasets for the self-management of internal brain states using wearable devices and safe everyday actuators. This dataset enables further machine learning and system identification investigations to facilitate future smart work environments. This would lead us to the ultimate idea of developing practical automated personalized closed-loop architectures for managing internal brain states and enhancing the quality of life.

The effect of lemon inhalation aromatherapy on pain, nausea, as well as vomiting and neurovascular assessment in patients for lower extremity fracture surgery: a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Complementary and integrative medicine may be effective for postoperative outcomes. This study aimed to determine the effect of lemon inhalation aromatherapy on pain, nausea, and vomiting and neurovascular assessment in patients for lower extremity fracture surgery.

METHODS

This is a randomized clinical trial study. Ninety patients who had undergone lower extremity fracture surgery were randomly assigned to the intervention (lemon aromatherapy) and control groups. Lemon aromatherapy was started in the morning of the surgery and extended at two-hour intervals until the end of the surgery, in the recovery room, and 16 h after surgery. Numerical pain and nausea and vomiting scales, the Rhodes Index of Nausea, Vomiting, and Retching, and the WACHS Neurovascular Observation Chart were used to assess the outcomes before and after the intervention (in the recovery room and 4, 8, 12, and 16 h post-surgery). The data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon test, ANCOVA, and Repeated Measure ANCOVA.

RESULTS

A significant difference was observed between the groups in terms of the intensity of pain (P < 0.001) and nausea and vomiting (P = 0.001) during the study period. Moreover, a significant difference was found between groups as to the frequency and severity of nausea, vomiting, and retching. The amount and duration of postoperative vomiting and nausea were significantly lower in the intervention group compared to the control group. In addition, lemon inhalation aromatherapy decreased the frequency of anti-emetic drug administration in the recovery room (P = 0.04) and 16 h post-surgery (P = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicated that aromatherapy reduced pain intensity, postoperative nausea, vomiting, and retching, as well as the incidence of anti-emetic drug administration. Therefore, using lemon inhalation aromatherapy to relieve pain and reduce nausea and vomiting is suggested for lower extremity fracture patients who have undergone surgery.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study was registered in the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trail (Number = 57,331, IRCT20130616013690N10, approved 24/07/2021) ( https://www.irct.ir/trial/57331 ).

A comprehensive review on clinically proven natural products in the management of nerve pain, with mechanistic insights

Introduction

People are treating their neuropathic pain with several approved and licensed pharmacological drugs. But due to having existing limitations like low efficacy with some side effects, there needs to be a more effective alternative and complementary therapeutic options.

Purpose

s: The study was designed to discuss the mechanistic role of several clinically proven natural products that have been shown to play a significant role against different nerve pain or neuropathic pain.

Method

ology: Information for this review article was salvaged using several accessible searching databases like SciVerse Scopus ® (Elsevier Properties S. A, USA), Web of Science® (Thomson Reuters, USA), and PubMed® (U.S. National Library of Medicine, USA) considering some search items like - nerve pain, natural products in pain/nerve pain management, clinically proven natural products in pain management, pain-reducing agents and so on.

Result

Our study reported the therapeutic efficacy of natural products and their possible mechanism against neuropathic pain in the human body. Natural products widely used to treat neuropathic pain include comfrey root extract ointment, lavender oil, Rose Oil, aromatic essential oil, ginger oil, vitex agnus-castus, peganum oil, and ajwain 10%. Some common pathways are involved in pain relief through sensory stimulation, enzymatic, anti-inflammatory, and pain-related receptor regulation.

Conclusion

The present study suggests that the mentioned natural products can be an appropriate choice for the treatment and management of neuropathic pain.

The Effects of Self-Aromatherapy Massage on Pain and Sleep Quality in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis is the most common form of inflammatory arthritis and can lead to pain, joint deformity, and disability, resulting in poor sleep quality and lower quality of life. The efficacy of aromatherapy massage on pain levels and sleep quality among rheumatoid arthritis patients remains unclear.

AIMS

To investigate the effects of aromatherapy on pain and sleep quality among rheumatoid arthritis patients.

METHODS

This randomized controlled trial enrolled 102 patients with rheumatoid arthritis from one regional hospital in Taoyuan, Taiwan. Patients were randomly assigned to the intervention (n = 32), placebo (n = 36), or control groups (n = 34). The intervention and placebo groups underwent self-aromatherapy hand massage guided by a self-aromatherapy hand massage manual and video for 10 minutes 3 times a week for 3 weeks. The intervention group used 5% compound essential oils, the placebo group used sweet almond oil, and the control group had no intervention. Pain, sleep quality and sleepiness were measured by using the numerical rating scale for pain, the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale at baseline and at 1, 2, and 3 weeks after the intervention.

RESULTS

The intervention and placebo groups had significantly decreased sleep quality and sleepiness scores from baseline to 3 weeks after aromatherapy massage. Compared with the control group, the intervention group showed statistically significant improvement in the sleep quality scores in the first weeks after aromatherapy massage (B = -1.19, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -2.35, -0.02, P =.046), but no statistically significant differences were found in the changes in pain levels from baseline to the three time points.

CONCLUSIONS

Aromatherapy massage is effective in improving sleep quality in rheumatoid arthritis patients. More studies are needed to evaluate the effects of aromatherapy hand massage on the pain levels of rheumatoid arthritis patients.

The Effect of a Multidimensional Home Rehabilitation Program for Post-Total Knee Arthroplasty Elderly Patients

Patients with total knee arthroplasty (TKA) experience pain, decreased muscle strength, and decreased knee function, resulting in increases in depression and decreased subjective well-being. A multidimensional home program may prevent these adverse events. The aim of this study was to test the effect of a home rehabilitation program that included education, exercise, aroma massage, and phone counseling for post-TKA patients. We used a randomized control group pretest/posttest design. Fifty-nine patients participated, with 29 in the experimental group and 30 in the control group. Pain, knee joint range of motion (ROM), quadriceps strength, depression, and subjective well-being were measured as outcome variables. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance and generalized estimating equations. The experimental group showed significant improvement in knee pain, active ROM, muscle strength, depression, and subjective well-being with no significant between-groups difference in passive ROM. The multidimensional home rehabilitation program can be an effective nursing intervention for physical and emotional recovery of patients with TKA.

Effectiveness of flipped teaching on the knowledge and self-efficacy of nursing personnel in non-pharmacological pain management-aromatherapy: a quasi-experiment

BACKGROUND

Aromatherapy is effective in treating pain; however, aromatherapy is not offered in formal nursing education in Taiwan. This study designed aromatherapy training courses for nurses using the flipped teaching approach and explored the effectiveness of the method, which can serve as a reference for future aromatherapy courses.

METHODS

A quasi-experimental design and convenience sampling were adopted. The participants were nurses who had been employed for over one year in two hospitals in Taiwan. Forty nurses were included in the experimental and control groups. The intervention of this study was performed in February 2020. Nurses in the control group received one hour of introduction to the use of aromatherapy in pain management. This class was delivered using the traditional teaching method, during which a researcher served as the lecturer. Nurses in the experimental group received a 2.5-h flipped teaching course on aromatherapy. Two weeks before classroom activities, the nurses in the experimental group watched a 30-min aromatherapy concept video on an e-learning teaching platform. Thereafter, the nurses participated in two hours of classroom teaching in both groups. The course design included group discussions, mind mapping, case discussion, practice with essential oils, and do-it-yourself essential oil preparation.

RESULTS

Pre- and post-test knowledge and self-efficacy in aromatherapy were assessed. There were no significant differences in the pre-test knowledge and self-efficacy scores between the two groups. The test was analyzed using a generalized estimating equation. Post-test knowledge and self-efficacy results showed that the change in scores in the experimental group was significantly better than that in the control group, indicating that flipped teaching improved the participants' knowledge and self-efficacy in aromatherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirmed that flipped teaching was effective in helping nursing personnel learn aromatherapy. Implementation of aromatherapy by nurses in clinical practice and its impact on patient care should be further assessed.

Effects of Topical Application and Oral Intake of Rosa damascena on Acute Pain in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Objectives

To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of available studies regarding the effects of the traditional herb Rosa damascena (as topical application and oral intake) on the severity of acute pain in adults.

Methods

A systematic search was performed on the following databases: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, Embase, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Scientific Information Database, and Magiran from inception to 20 March 2021. We included parallel-group and cross-over randomized controlled trials that compared the effects of any products containing R damascena in oral and topical administration forms to placebo, non-treatment, or conventional treatment. Two researchers independently performed the document screening and selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment. A random-effect model was used to pool the data.

Results

From a total of 11 studies that met the inclusion criteria, four studies administered R damascena through topical application and seven by oral intake. Nine studies recruited only females. Ten studies had parallel-group design, while one adopted cross-over design. The oral intake of Rdamascena reduced pain severity non-significantly (standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.55, 95% CI: -1.27-0.17; p =0.132). However, the topical application of this treatment had no pain-alleviating effect (SMD = 0.10, 95% CI: -0.75-0.96; p =0.814). One study reported mild allergic rhinitis as an adverse effect of the treatment. Risk of bias assessment revealed that three of the eleven studies had good methodological quality, six had fair quality, and two were of poor quality.

Conclusions

This systematic review and meta-analysis suggests that the oral intake of R damascena may have a non-significant alleviating effect on acute pain severity in adults. However, its topical application has not shown pain-alleviating effect. More robust randomized controlled trials are needed for accurate estimation of the effects of oral and topical use of R damascena on the severity of different types of acute pain in adults.

Requirements for translation in clinical trials of aromatherapy: the case of the essential oil of bergamot (BEO) for the management of agitation in severe dementia

Abstract:

Due to the tight link between undertreated pain and agitation in dementia patients, aromatherapy can be a useful approach if an essential oil (EO) with powerful analgesic activity is used. The methodological difficulties of most aromatherapy trials have not allowed any definitive conclusion about the effectiveness of aromatherapy in dementia. The objective of the present perspective is to illustrate the long rigorous process leading from preclinical research to clinical translation of the EO of bergamot (BEO) for the management of agitation in dementia. A nanotechnology-based delivery system consisting of odorless alpha-tocopheryl stearate solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) loaded with EO of bergamot (BEO) (NanoBEO), has been proven active on acute and neuropathic pain models confirming the strong antinociceptive and anti-allodynic efficacy reported for BEO in preclinical studies. In particular, prolonged physicochemical stability of NanoBEO and titration in its main components are remarkable advantages allowing reproducible antinociceptive and anti-itch responses to be measured. Furthermore, the possibility to perform double-blind clinical trials, made impossible so far because of the strong smell of essential oils used in aromatherapy. Demented patients receive limited treatment for chronic pain, particularly neuropathic. The BRAINAID (NCT04321889) trial will assess the effectiveness of NanoBEO on agitation and pain in severely demented patients to offer a safe tool able to provide relief to this fragile population. This double-blind clinical trial will be the first to assess the efficacy and safety of an engineered essential oil and will provide the rationale for the safer treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia and pain in clinic.

Translational Value of the Transdermal Administration of Bergamot Essential Oil and of Its Fractions

The essential oil of bergamot (BEO) has consistently proven antinociceptive and antiallodynic properties. Accordingly, the analgesic efficacy of the decolored essential oil (DEC), with higher levels of limonene, and the deterpenated (DET) fraction, with higher levels of linalool and linalyl acetate, was investigated using a formalin test after inhalation. The present study was aimed at characterizing the effects of BEO, its components with the highest pharmacological activity (represented by linalool, limonene, and linalyl acetate), and its DEC and DET fractions on the formalin test after transdermal administration relevant to clinical translation through topical application. To this aim, the schedule of intervention involved administration immediately after formalin injection or as a 5 min pretreatment followed by washout in ddY-strain mice. This study demonstrates, for the first time, the significant analgesic effect of all three constituents in the first and second phases, accounting for the efficacy of the essential oil in the formalin test. While all fractions revealed equal activity toward the phytocomplex in the early phase, the reduction in time of licking/biting during the late phase was more markedly induced by DEC. Moreover, pretreatment with BEO and its fractions followed by washout did not produce a significant reduction in licking/biting time in both phases of formalin-induced nociceptive response.

Effectiveness of Aromatherapy on Ameliorating Fatigue in Adults: A Meta-Analysis

Background

Fatigue is a common symptom in adults that may cause physical and psychological problems and reduce quality of life. Aromatherapy could possibly provide relief for those suffering from fatigue. Here, we evaluated the effect of aromatherapy on fatigue in adults.

Methods

We searched the PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Chinese Biomedical Literature, SinoMed, Wanfang, and Chinese Scientific Journal Database databases for randomized controlled trials of aromatherapy treatment for fatigue in adults from their inception to June 2021. Two reviewers searched independently, extracted the characteristics of the studies, and assessed the risk of bias using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool and Stata v. 14.0.

Results

Nineteen studies were included in this systematic review. Aromatherapy had a significant effect on fatigue (standardized mean difference −0.64, 95% confidence interval−1.14, −0.15, I² 94.4%, P < 0.001). Subgroup analysis according to aromatic type, substance, frequency, treatment duration, intervention, outcomes measurement, and population type showed that aromatherapy had a significantly greater effect in the intervention group, compared to the control group. Funnel plots and Egger's test indicated no significant publication bias.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that aromatherapy ameliorates fatigue in adults who suffer from chronic diseases. A rigorous intervention program and larger randomized controlled trials are needed.

Aromatherapy in Nursing and Midwifery Practice: A Scoping Review of Published Studies Since 2005

Background: Since the 1990's aromatherapy has been a popular adjunct to nursing and midwifery care in a variety of health care settings. Objective: The scoping review seeks to identify and confirm the benefits of incorporating aromatherapy into holistic nursing and midwifery practice Design: A scoping review using PRISMA-ScR of experimental studies where care is provided to the patient by a registered nurse or midwife. Settings and participants: Any health care setting where nurses or midwives provide care. Review Methods: A multi- engine search using a range of MeSH and non-MeSH terms with the Boolean search [AND]. Inclusion criteria were; publication date from 2005-2021, study involved aromatherapy as an intervention, conducted in a clinical nursing or midwifery environment and the published article is available in full in English. Excluded were; single patient cases, animal studies, in vitro studies, use of essential oils internally or a whole plant extract was used or use was non-nursing/midwifery related. Results: 124 studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 19188), classified into seven themes. Conclusion: The evidence supports the use of aromatherapy within a range of nursing and midwifery practices enhancing a holistic model of care. Impact: This scoping review contributes evidence to support the inclusion of aromatherapy into holistic nursing and midwifery practice.

Opioid-free anesthesia in oncologic surgery: the rules of the game

BACKGROUND

Opioids are frequently used in the postoperative period due to their analgesic properties. While these drugs reduce nociceptive somatic, visceral, and neuropathic pain, they may also lead to undesirable effects such as respiratory depression, urinary retention, nausea and vomiting, constipation, itching, opioid-induced hyperalgesia, tolerance, addiction, and immune system disorders. Anesthesiologists are in the critical position of finding balance between using opioids when they are necessary and implementing opioid-sparing strategies to avoid the known harmful effects. This article aims to give an overview of opioid-free anesthesia.

MAIN BODY

This paper presents an overview of opioid-free anesthesia and opioid-sparing anesthetic techniques. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies are discussed, highlighting the possible advantages and drawbacks of each approach.

CONCLUSIONS

Choosing the best anesthetic protocol for a patient undergoing cancer surgery is not an easy task and the available literature provides no definitive answers. In our opinion, opioid-sparing strategies should always be implemented in routine practice and opioid-free anesthesia should be considered whenever possible. Non-pharmacological strategies such as patient education, while generally underrepresented in scientific literature, may warrant consideration in clinical practice.

Temporal expectancy induced by the mere possession of a placebo analgesic affects placebo analgesia: preliminary findings from a randomized controlled trial

Research on placebo analgesia usually shows that people experienced a reduction in pain after using a placebo analgesic. An emerging line of research argues that, under some circumstances, merely possessing (but not using) a placebo analgesic could induce placebo analgesia. The current study investigates how temporary expectation of pain reduction associated with different forms of possessing a placebo analgesic affects pain outcomes. Healthy participants (n = 90) were presented with a vial of olive oil (placebo), described as a blended essential oil that blocks pain sensations upon nasal inhalation, and were asked to anticipate the benefits of such analgesic oil to the self (such as anticipating the analgesic oil to reduce their pain). Participants were randomized into one of three different possession conditions: physical-possession condition (participants possessed a tangible placebo analgesic oil, inducing an expectation to acquire analgesic benefit early upon the experience of pain), psychological-possession condition (participants possessed a coupon, which can be redeemed for a placebo analgesic oil, inducing an expectation to acquire analgesic benefit later upon the experience of pain), or no-possession condition. Participants did a cold pressor test (CPT) to experience experimentally-induced pain on their non-dominant hand. Their objective physical pain responses (pain-threshold and pain-tolerance), and subjective psychological pain perception (pain intensity, severity, quality, and unpleasantness) were measured. Results revealed that participants in the physical-possession condition reported greater pain-threshold, F(2, 85) = 6.65, p = 0.002, and longer pain-tolerance, F(2, 85) = 7.19, p = 0.001 than participants in the psychological-possession and no-possession conditions. No significant group difference was found in subjective pain perception. The results of this study can advance knowledge about pain mechanisms and novel pain management.

Impact of Lavender on Pain and Anxiety Levels Associated With Spine Procedures

Background: To reduce pain and anxiety associated with interventional pain procedures, sedation is often used, with benzodiazepines, opioids, and propofol the most commonly used classes of drugs for sedation. However, patient coherence and ability to communicate procedural pain and abnormal sensations help prevent adverse outcomes. Therefore, discovering alternative therapies to mitigate the anxiety and pain associated with these procedures and to minimize risk is important. The aim of our study was to investigate whether lavender has an effect on pain and anxiety associated with lumbar epidural steroid injections and lumbar medial branch blocks.

Methods: In this randomized controlled study, 54 subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 intervention groups, and 46 patients were included in the final analysis: experimental lavender group (n=17), control almond oil group (n=15), and placebo sterile water group (n=14). Patients wore a mask infused with either lavender, almond oil, or water for 5 minutes prior to and during their procedure. Patients rated their anxiety using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory prior to and after the procedure based on how they felt during the procedure. Patients rated their pain according to the numerical rating scale. Outcome measures were a comparison of pain among the 3 groups and a comparison of the change in anxiety before and after the procedure among the 3 groups.

Results: The lavender group demonstrated the highest mean change in anxiety scores (9.9) compared to almond oil (5.3) and water (3.6) preprocedurally vs postprocedurally. The lavender group also reported the lowest mean pain level (3.8) compared to almond oil (5.6) and water (5.6). However, none of the differences between groups showed statistical significance at the P<0.05 level.

Conclusion: Lavender may have a clinically beneficial effect on anxiety levels and pain reduction.

CHRONIC PAIN AND PHYSICAL THERAPY IN CHILDREN WITH PARALYTIC SYNDROMES: ARE THERE ANY CHANGES DURING LOCKDOWN?

OBJECTIVE

The aim: To evaluate an influence of physical therapy on chronic pain in children with paralytic's syndrome and to maternal emotional status on lockdown time during the COVID-19 pandemic.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and methods: Data from 96 children and their mothers (96 persons) were included in the study. On-site services of physical therapists before the pandemic (2018- 2019) were received by 64 children and by 32 children during quarantine measures due to COVID-19 pandemic (2020). The age of the children ranged from 1 to 6 years, the median age was 3 years and 3 months.

RESULTS

Results: We note that there were more boys with paralytic syndromes. Among the leading paralytic syndromes, the most common was spastic tetraparesis. The frequency of children with level III-V motor disorders prevailed.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: The authors consider that physical rehabilitation in children with paralytic syndromes reduces the incidence of moderate chronic pain and improves the emotional state of parents. But, these changes do not occur during the pandemic.

Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Essential Oils on the Central Nervous System

Essential oils (EOs) have been traditionally used as ancient remedies to treat many health disorders due to their enormous biological activities. As mainstream allopathic medication currently used for CNS disorders is associated with adverse effects, the search to obtain safer alternatives as compared to the currently marketed therapies is of tremendous significance. Research conducted suggests that concurrent utilization of allopathic medicines and EOs is synergistically beneficial. Due to their inability to show untoward effects, various scientists have tried to elucidate the pharmacological mechanisms by which these oils exert beneficial effects on the CNS. In this regard, our review aims to improve the understanding of EOs' biological activity on the CNS and to highlight the significance of the utilization of EOs in neuronal disorders, thereby improving patient acceptability of EOs as therapeutic agents. Through data compilation from library searches and electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, etc., recent preclinical and clinical data, routes of administration, and the required or maximal dosage for the observation of beneficial effects are addressed. We have also highlighted the challenges that require attention for further improving patient compliance, research gaps, and the development of EO-based nanomedicine for targeted therapy and pharmacotherapy.

Aromatherapy in Stroke Patients: Is it Time to Begin?

Stroke is the second largest cause of death worldwide, causing disease with long-term consequences and considerable healthcare costs. The application of new nursing interventions aimed at reducing distressing behaviors and at increasing patient comfort is an important part of the care and, until now, there are no defined guidelines. Aromatherapy has been demonstrated to be efficient in several other neurological disorders for the treatment of somatic and emotional diseases and to promote patient health. In the management of stroke patients, aromatherapy is still in its infancy. The first evidence coming from animal models demonstrated a consistent and reliable neuroprotective effect in reducing cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. In the last few years, some preliminary data being to be collected in humans revealed significant influence in reducing patients' pain and emotional distress. In this perspective study, we sought to summarize, for the first time, the main findings emerging from this new field of study, discussing the future opportunities to be translated into primary care practice.

Effect of Aromatherapy on Dental Anxiety and Pain in Children Undergoing Local Anesthetic Administrations: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Introduction: In dentistry, local anesthetic (LA) administration in children is often associated with behavioral problems. Hence, the present study evaluated the efficacy of aromatherapy in reducing the dental anxiety and pain during LA procedure.

Methods: This clinical trial was conducted upon 150 children in the age range of 8-12 years. Subjects were randomly divided into five groups; Group 1: Lavender essential oil using nebulizer; Group 2: Lavender essential oil using inhaler; Group 3: Orange essential oil using nebulizer; Group 4: Orange essential oil using inhaler; Group 5: Control (without aromatherapy). For all the children, baseline anxiety was recorded followed by aromatherapy (except for children in the control group). Following the standard protocol, LA was administered. The procedural pain was assessed using Faces, Legs, Activity, Cry and Consolability scale (FLACC) and Faces Pain Scale-Revised (FPS-R). Finally, anxiety was again recorded. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 17.0.

Results: A significant difference in ANOVA test was observed among anxiety scores after LA in aromatherapy groups 1, 3, and 4 compared to control. When the FLACC scores were analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis, there were significantly lower values in aromatherapy groups compared to the control group. The pain scores, as reported in FPS-R, were also lower in aroma groups 1, 3, and 4.

Conclusion: Aromatherapy with lavender or sweet orange, using either nebulizer or inhaler, decreased the dental anxiety of children, whereas, only sweet orange could reduce the pain as self-reported by children.

Essential oils for agitation in dementia [rELOAD]: A pragmatic, cluster-randomized, placebo-controlled, pilot feasibility trial

BACKGROUND

Clinical guidelines recommend non-pharmacological interventions as the first line of treatment for agitation in dementia. One intervention that shows some promise as a treatment for agitation is essential oils. The objective of this study was to provide preliminary evidence of the effectiveness and feasibility of using topically-administered, individualized essential oil preparations for the alleviation of agitation in persons with dementia.

METHODS

We conducted a 10-week pragmatic, cluster-randomized, placebo-controlled, pilot feasibility trial to compare the effectiveness of topically-administered, individualized essential oil preparations to control (placebo) preparations. Outcomes included frequency and severity of agitation, quality of life, frequency of antipsychotic medication use and physical restraint, incidence of adverse events, and trial feasibility. Participants with dementia and clinically significant agitation were recruited from five residential aged-care facilities across regional South Australia.

RESULTS

Thirty-eight participants were randomized from five sites. Accounting for random effects, we found statistically significant differences between the intervention and control groups in Pittsburgh Agitation Scale (PAS) aberrant vocalization sub score, Cohen Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CMAI) verbally agitated sub score and CMAI total score at week 4, but not at weeks 8 (post-intervention) or 10 (follow-up). No significant time-group interactions were observed for other PAS/CMAI scores or sub scores, quality of life - Alzheimer's disease total score, or frequency of physical restraint or as-needed antipsychotic medication. No adverse events were reported in any group.

CONCLUSIONS

The study findings highlight some promising effects of topically-administered, individualized essential oil preparations for agitation in dementia, and indicate that a large multi-center, cluster-randomized controlled trial of this treatment is feasible.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry [ACTRN12617001159347].

Effect of Foot Reflexology and Aromatherapy on Anxiety and Pain During Brachytherapy for Cervical Cancer

OBJECTIVES

To determine if the addition of aromatherapy and foot reflexology to the standard of care improves pain and anxiety in patients receiving brachytherapy for cervical cancer.

SAMPLE & SETTING

41 women with locally advanced cervical cancer who received intracavitary brachytherapy as part of their treatment.

METHODS & VARIABLES

Participants were randomized to either the control group, which received the standard-of-care management during brachytherapy, or the intervention group, which received the addition of aromatherapy and foot reflexology to standard of care. Participants rated their pain on a numeric rating scale and anxiety on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and a numeric rating scale at five different time points.

RESULTS

All average pain and anxiety scores were equal or lower at each key time point for the intervention group. Statistically significant differences were found for the intervention group for anxiety on the numeric rating scale and on the STAI, but only post-reflexology.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING

Nurses and other healthcare providers can be trained to provide reflexology during painful, anxiety-producing procedures to increase patient tolerance of these treatments and overall quality of life.

Effect of aromatherapy on the pain of arteriovenous fistula puncture in patients on hemodialysis: a systematic review

Purpose

This study aims to determine the effect of aromatherapy used in reducing the pain caused by fistula puncture in hemodialysis patients.

Design/methodology/approach

In this study, the effect of aromatherapy application on fistula puncture was analyzed and carried out by scanning the relevant literature. The literature review was conducted between August and October 2020. While reviewing the literature, the authors used “aromatherapy,” “pain,” “fistula,” “puncture,” “hemodialysis” keywords and various combinations of these; moreover, Google scientist, Pubmed, Cochrane, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Medline and Ovid databases and studies, which were conducted in the last 10 years were reviewed. As a result of the literature review, 1183 studies were reached and seven of them were included in the study by taking the inclusion criteria into account.

Findings

The randomized controlled studies are six studies and nonrandomized controlled experimental 1 study were added to the scope of the study and seven studies were included in the sample. In these studies, personal information forms developed by the researchers as data collection tools and the VAS scale, Numerical pain rating, the numeric rating scale were used to evaluate pain.

Practical implications

It has been determined that aromatherapy application in hemodialysis patients has positive effects on reducing pain due to puncture fistula intervention.

Originality/value

This study provides reduction or elimination of fistula needle insertion pain in hemodialysis patients.

Lifestyle Medicine for Chronic Lower Back Pain: An Evidence-Based Approach

Lower back pain is a leading cause of work absence and activity limitations globally, with a 60% to 85% lifetime chance of occurrence. This article highlights the role that lifestyle medicine plays in managing lower back pain as a cost-effective intervention strategy. It is suggested that lifestyle medicine strategies, such as incorporating whole foods and a plant-based diet, sustainable physical activity and mind-body exercises, restorative sleep, stress resiliency, awareness and mitigation of substance abuse and addiction, and establishing meaningful social networks and self-care strategies, be a part of managing chronic lower back pain.

The effect of aromatherapy on fatigue in adults receiving haemodialysis treatment: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

AIM

To synthesise the effect of aromatherapy on fatigue in adults receiving haemodialysis treatment in randomised controlled trials.

DESIGN

A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials following the Cochrane methods.

DATA RESOURCES

Systematic search was carried out using the Cochrane Library, CINAHL, Council of Higher Education National Thesis Center, Networked Digital Library of Theses & Dissertations, Science Direct, Springer Link, Scopus, PubMed, ProQuest, Ovid, ULAKBIM Turkish National Databases and Web of Science without year limitation for studies published in the English language. The review covered the period between 1960 and April 2020.

REVIEW METHODS

Three authors reviewed the risk of bias independently and systematically using the Cochrane Collaboration tool.

RESULTS

Eight studies with 606 participants were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. Aromatherapy was applied through inhalation and massage methods and performed from 2 to 30 min and in 3 to 30 sessions. There was no significant publication bias. Aromatherapy had a large effect on fatigue in adults receiving haemodialysis treatment and high heterogeneity.

CONCLUSION

Aromatherapy has a high and positive effect on fatigue in the adults receiving haemodialysis and can be used as an effective intervention in the management of fatigue.

IMPACT

Aromatherapy may help to reduce the severity of fatigue in adults receiving haemodialysis. The findings of this systematic review and meta-analysis will contribute to the use of aromatherapy in the management of fatigue and conduction of randomised controlled trials related to aromatherapy.

Therapeutic Effect and Mechanisms of Essential Oils in Mood Disorders: Interaction between the Nervous and Respiratory Systems

Essential oils (EOs) are extracted from plants and contain active components with therapeutic effects. Evidence shows that various types of EOs have a wide range of health benefits. In our previous studies, the potential of lavender EO for prevention and even treatment of depression and anxiety symptoms was demonstrated. The favourable outcomes may be due to multiple mechanisms, including the regulation of monoamine level, the induction of neurotrophic factor expression, the regulation of the endocrine system and the promotion of neurogenesis. The molecules of EOs may reach the brain and exert an effect through two distinctive pathways, namely, the olfactory system and the respiratory system. After inhalation, the molecules of the EOs would either act directly on the olfactory mucosa or pass into the respiratory tract. These two delivery pathways suggest different underlying mechanisms of action. Different sets of responses would be triggered, such as increased neurogenesis, regulation of hormonal levels, activation of different brain regions, and alteration in blood biochemistry, which would ultimately affect both mood and emotion. In this review, we will discuss the clinical effects of EOs on mood regulation and emotional disturbances as well as the cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. Emphasis will be put on the interaction between the respiratory and central nervous system and the involved potential mechanisms. Further evidence is needed to support the use of EOs in the clinical treatment of mood disturbances. Exploration of the underlying mechanisms may provide insight into the future therapeutic use of EO components treatment of psychiatric and physical symptoms.

Efficacy of Essential Oils in Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Evidence

Background: The demand for essential oils (EOs) has been steadily growing over the years. This is mirrored by a substantial increase in research concerned with EOs also in the field of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. The purpose of this present systematic review and meta-analysis is to investigate the preclinical evidence in favor of the working hypothesis of the analgesic properties of EOs, elucidating whether there is a consistent rational basis for translation into clinical settings.

Methods: A literature search has been conducted on databases relevant for medical scientific literature, i.e., PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science from database inception until November 2, 2020, following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) criteria for systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

Results: The search was conducted in order to answer the following PICOS (participants/population, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design) question: are EOs efficacious in reducing acute nociceptive pain and/or neuropathic pain in mice experimental models? The search retrieved 2,491 records, leaving 954 studies to screen after the removal of duplicates. The title and abstract of all 954 studies were screened, which left 127 records to evaluate in full text. Of these, 30 articles were eligible for inclusion.

Conclusion: Most studies (27) assessed the analgesic properties of EOs on acute nociceptive pain models, e.g. the acetic acid writhings test, the formalin test, and the hot plate test. Unfortunately, efficacy in neuropathic pain models, which are a more suitable model for human conditions of chronic pain, had fewer results (only three studies). Moreover, some methodologies raised concerns in terms of the risk of bias. Therefore, EOs with proven efficacy in both types of pain were corroborated by methodologically consistent studies, like the EO of bergamot, which should be studied in clinical trials to enhance the translational impact of preclinical modeling on clinical pain research.

Pain, Smell, and Taste in Adults: A Narrative Review of Multisensory Perception and Interaction

Every day our sensory systems perceive and integrate a variety of stimuli containing information vital for our survival. Pain acts as a protective warning system, eliciting a response to remove harmful stimuli; it may also be a symptom of an illness or present as a disease itself. There is a growing need for additional pain-relieving therapies involving the multisensory integration of smell and taste in pain modulation, an approach that may provide new strategies for the treatment and management of pain. While pain, smell, and taste share common features and are strongly linked to emotion and cognition, their interaction has been poorly explored. In this review, we provide an overview of the literature on pain modulation by olfactory and gustatory substances. It includes adult human studies investigating measures of pain threshold, tolerance, intensity, and/or unpleasantness. Due to the limited number of studies currently available, we have structured this review as a narrative in which we comment on experimentally induced and clinical pain separately on pain–smell and pain–taste interaction. Inconsistent study findings notwithstanding, pain, smell, and taste seem to interact at both the behavioral and the neural levels. Pain intensity and unpleasantness seem to be affected more by olfactory substances, whereas pain threshold and tolerance are influenced by gustatory substances. Few pilot studies to date have investigated these effects in clinical populations. While the current results are promising for the future, more evidence is needed to elucidate the link between the chemical senses and pain. Doing so has the potential to improve and develop novel options for pain treatment.

Abdominal Surgical Patients Randomized to Aromatherapy for Pain Management

PURPOSE

Evaluate aromatherapy for postoperative abdominal pain in hospitalized patients.

DESIGN

A randomized controlled trial design.

METHODS

Study participants (n = 172) were randomized to receive either standard care or standard care and aromatherapy (AT) for postsurgical pain up to 24 hours after admission to a nonintensive care surgical unit. A convenience sample was recruited before surgery and given instructions on self-rating pain intensity. The AT group was topically administered a drop of lavender essential oil after medication and at random for pain. Pain scores and medications data were collected.

FINDINGS

Of the evaluable patients (n = 147), demographic data were similar (standard care and AT groups). The use of aromatherapy showed no substantial benefit at improving pain scores or reducing medication use (the primary objectives of the study). A subgroup analysis of patients who received a regional nerve block for pain management, however, showed more than fivefold improvement in pain scores after the use of aromatherapy. The AT group used more medications at baseline (P = .032), whereas 70% less medications were used (P = .031) by 24 hours.

CONCLUSIONS

Aromatherapy aided in control of pain intensity for abdominal surgical patients. In patients who received a regional nerve block, significant improvement in pain level occurred as effects of the block diminished.

Effects of lavender and Citrus aurantium on pain of conscious intensive care unit patients: A parallel randomized placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Conscious patients admitted to intensive care units (ICUs) suffer from pain for various reasons, which can affect their recovery process.

OBJECTIVE

The present study compared the effects of aromatherapy with Citrus aurantium and lavender essential oils against placebo for reducing pain in conscious intensive care patients.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS

This study was a parallel randomized placebo-controlled trial. The ICUs of two educational hospitals in Kerman in Southeastern Iran were the study setting. One hundred and fifty conscious intensive care patients were randomly divided into three groups using a stratified block randomization method. Two groups received aromatherapy with essential oils: one with lavender and the other with C. aurantium; these patients received a 30-minute therapy session using their assigned essential oil on the second day of their intensive care stay. The placebo group used 5 drops of normal saline instead of essential oil during their session.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Patient's pain was assessed using a visual analog scale before the aromatherapy intervention, as well as immediately after and one and three hours after intervention.

RESULTS

The mean pain score of the lavender group was 40.01 before the aromatherapy intervention and fell to 39.40, 30.60 and 23.68 immediately after the intervention, and at hour one and three post-intervention, respectively. The mean pain score of the C. aurantium group was 45.48 before the intervention and was reduced to 32.34 at three hours after the intervention. The mean pain of the placebo group decreased from 42.80 before the intervention to 35.20 at three hours after the intervention. Pain scores of all groups decreased during the study (P < 0.001). The mean pain of the lavender group was significantly lower than that of the placebo group at three hours after the intervention.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study showed that aromatherapy with lavender essential oil reduced pain in conscious ICU patients. Our data could not justify the use of C. aurantium for reducing pain in this population.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

No. IRCT20170116031972N9 (https://en.irct.ir/trial/40827).

The calming effect of roasted coffee aroma in patients undergoing dental procedures

Coffee beverage consumption is well-known to exert various health benefits; however, the effects of coffee aroma are rarely explored. This study aimed to investigate the calming effect of inhaling coffee aroma while the patients underwent dental procedures (probing and scaling). Salivary α-amylase (sAA) and cortisol (sCort) levels were measured as proxies of sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis responses to stress respectively. Blood pressures and pulse rates were recorded. The results showed that undergoing dental procedures could increase sAA and sCort levels of the patients inhaling sham aroma while those inhaling coffee aroma had significantly decreased sAA and sCort levels (40% and 25% differences, respectively). The pulse rates of those inhaling coffee aroma were also lower. Subjective assessment using visual analog scale was in line with objective measures as well. The preference for coffee aroma or the frequency of coffee drinking had no effect on the sAA and sCort responses. This is the first study to provide evidence on the effect of coffee aroma on sAA and sCort levels in patients undergoing dental procedures.

The Effect of Aromatherapy on Elderly Persons With Dry Skin: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Dry skin, which is one of the most frequent dermatological problems seen in the elderly population, is an important problem that increases with aging. This study was conducted as a randomized controlled experimental trial to determine the effect of aromatherapy, applied to elderly persons residing in a nursing home in a city center, on dry skin. Elderly persons were grouped into a control group (20 elderly persons), an olive oil group (20 elderly persons), and an aromatherapy group (20 elderly persons). When examining between-measurements differences of the groups in the study, skin moisture levels of the elderly individuals in the aromatherapy group increased in all zones, arm, leg, back, and chest, at measurements of the second and fourth weeks compared with the first measurements. This improvement was determined to be higher after the second week. Skin moisture levels of elderly persons in the olive oil group were determined to significantly increase at the arm zone in the fourth week and at the back zone in the second and fourth weeks compared with the first measurements. Skin moisture levels of elderly persons in the control group, on the contrary, did not change in the second and fourth weeks compared with the first measurements and their dry skin continued at the same level. The intervention performed in this manner in the present study can be used in the clinical practice as an effective nursing intervention to reducing dry skin among elderly persons.

Aroma Acupoint Therapy for Symptom Management with Adolescent Patients: Early Experiences from School-Based Health Centers

Objectives: The American Academy of Pediatrics has long recognized a need for more resources for integrative medicine for health care providers and for patients. The aim of this study was to introduce Aroma Acupoint Therapy (AAT)-a relatively new integrative medicine modality using essential oils to activate acupoints-and to describe the early experiences of providers using AAT for adolescents at school-based health centers (SBHCs). Materials and Methods: This was a case series of 15 adolescents treated with 1 of 2 AAT specific protocols plus standard medical therapy between April 2018 and February 2019 at SBHCs. Of these 15 patients, ages 12-19, 14 were female. Clinical characteristics and treatment courses were abstracted by retrospective review of the patients' electronic medical records. The main outcomes and measures for this research were clinical characteristics, treatment courses and pre- and post-treatment pain scores for adolescents treated with AAT. Results: All 15 patients had nonspecific symptoms, including headaches, menstrual cramps, nausea, shortness of breath, chest pain, back pain, or dizziness. Pain scores were recorded in 8 of 15 encounters, and suggested improvements in most patients. Subjective documentation by the providers also suggested that most of these patients had reduced symptoms. Conclusions: With the call for nonopiate and integrative approaches to pain management, there is an urgent need to study the effectiveness of such modalities, such as AAT. It is safe, inexpensive, easy to learn, and is well-received by both health care providers and patients.

The Effectiveness of Aromatherapy in the Management of Labor Pain and Anxiety: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Aromatherapy as an alternative and complementary medicine is a well-known method for reducing the symptoms of various physiological processes such as labor experience. The aim of this study was to systematically review the currently available evidences evaluating the use of aromatherapy for management of labor pain and anxiety.

METHODS

In a systematic review, 5 databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Google Scholar and Scientific Information Database [SID]) were searched, from database inception up to December 2019. Keywords used included (aromatherapy OR ""essential oil" OR "aroma*") AND (pain OR anxiety) AND (labor OR delivery). Using the Cochrane Collaboration's 'Risk of bias' method; the risk of bias in the included studies was evaluated.

RESULTS

A total of 33 studies were verified to meet our inclusion criteria. Most of the included studies were conducted in Iran. Aromatherapy was applied using inhalation, massage, footbath, birthing pool, acupressure, and compress. The most popularly used essential oil in the studies was lavender (13 studies), either as a single essential oil or in a combination with other essential oils. Most of included studies confirmed the positive effect of aromatherapy in reducing labor pain and anxiety.

CONCLUSION

The evidences from this study suggest that aromatherapy, as a complementary and alternative modality, can help in relieving maternal anxiety and pain during labor.

Individual differences in personality predict the use and perceived effectiveness of essential oils

Essential oil (EO) use is growing in popularity and ostensibly used for treating or preventing various ailments or conditions. Despite the increase in use, there is a paucity of research on psychosocial predictors of EO use and their perceived effectiveness. However, several psychosocial characteristics are associated with health-promoting behavior and a tendency to believe in homeopathic cures. In the current study, we examined a variety of individual differences in the use and perceived effectiveness of essential oils in a sample of 1,202 participants (Mage = 31.33, SD = 13.77; 61.7% women, 75.6% Caucasian). We found that receptivity to pseudo-profound fabricated statements and religiosity were the most consistent predictors of greater use of, perceived effectiveness of, and a willingness to spend more money on EOs.

A Feasibility Study of Lavender Aromatherapy in an Awake Craniotomy Environment

PURPOSE

Integrative medicine interventions are needed for awake craniotomies, as many patients experience anxiety. Lavender aromatherapy significantly reduces anxiety or pain in a variety of surgical procedures. This feasibility study used lavender aromatherapy during awake craniotomies to determine the number of patients who would consent and complete the study, the technicality of lavender aromatherapy use, and acceptance by operating room (OR) staff.

METHODS

We approached 40 consecutive patients (≥18 years old). Exclusion criteria were pulmonary issues or sensitivity to lavender. Outcome measures in consented patients were enrollment and completion rates, anxiety and pain as measured by the Visual Analog Scale for Anxiety (VAS-A) and Visual Analog Scale for Pain (VAS-P), and satisfaction with pain control using the Patient Opinion of Pain Management (POPM) survey.

RESULTS

Of the 40 patients approached, 4 declined participation or had their surgery cancelled. Of the remaining 36, 4 required increased sedation during surgery and 1 was unable to detect lavender. Thus, 31 patients (77.5%) completed the study. VAS-A and VAS-P scores trended lower after lavender inhalation, but the difference did not reach statistical significance. There was a slight increase in VAS-P score at the OR1 time point. Expectancy for reduction in both anxiety and pain were not significantly different. Improvement in anxiety also was not different, while improvement in pain trended lower (P=0.025). POPM results indicated the majority of patients were either "satisfied" or "very satisfied" with pain management.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated 77.5% completion and the ability to integrate lavender aromatherapy into the OR. Thus, we plan to conduct a randomized clinical trial to assess efficacy of lavender aromatherapy.