Antidiabetic and Antioxidant Impacts of Desert Date (Balanites aegyptiaca) and Parsley (Petroselinum sativum) Aqueous Extracts: Lessons from Experimental Rats

Critical Review on Balanites aegyptiaca Delile: Phytoconstituents, Pharmacological Properties and Nanointerventions

Balanites aegyptiaca Delile (BA) is an enduring xerophytic woody and spinous flowering tree and is commonly known as desert date or Ingudi (Hingot). It belongs to the family Zygophyllaceae, which is specific to be drought areas of Nigeria, Africa, South Asia and India (Rajasthan). In Ayurveda, this traditional medicinal plant is reported for the management of jaundice, syphilis, yellow fever, metabolic disorders, liver, and spleen problems. The main aim of the review is to compile its medicinal uses and further advancements to showcase the promises inherited in various parts of the plant for the benefit of mankind. As per the literature survey, various researchers have focused on the detailed investigation of BA including the phytopharmacological evidence, chemical constituents, nano-formulations, commercialized products, and clinical trials. Several remarkable scaffolds and isolated compounds like diosgenin, yamogenin, balanitin1/2, balanitin 3, bal4/5, bal6/7, rutin-3-glycosides, 3,7-diglycosides, (3, 12, 14, 16)-(12-hydroxycholest-5-ene-3,16-diyl-bis)-D-glucopyranoside and balanitoside have been identified. Additionally, this traditional plant has been scientifically proven by in vitro and in vivo. Based on the complete review of this plant, most of the compounds have been isolated from the fruit and kernel part. Additionally, based on the literature, a histogram was developed for pharmacological activity in which antidiabetic study was found to be more compared to other pharmacological activity. As a spinous desert dates, this plant needs to be explored more to bring out newer phytochemicals in the management of various diseases.

Phytochemical Screening and Antidiabetic Efficacy of Balanites aegyptiaca Seed Extract and Their Silver Nanoparticles on Muscle and Pancreatic Cell Lines

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, a member of the Zygophyllaceae family, is commonly known as the desert date. This tree is famous for yielding edible fruits and is esteemed for its nutritional richness and diverse health advantages. The primary aim of this research was to assess the potential antidiabetic and cytotoxic effects of seed extracts from B. aegyptiaca and its AgNPs for the first time on C2C12 and MIN6 cells, focusing on glucose uptake and insulin secretion, respectively. Additionally, the seed extracts underwent column chromatography through different solvent systems, resulting in the isolation of five distinct fractions with a mixture of methanol and water as an eluting solvent in different ratios. Comprehensive characterization of the aqueous seed extract was carried out using GC-MS and UPLC-MS. The study determined that the aqueous seed extract exhibited no toxicity at any tested concentration (6.25-100 μg/mL) on both cell types. The calculated IC50 values were 206.00 and 140.44 μg/mL for C2C12 and MIN6 cells, respectively, for seeds of AgNPs. Additionally, the aqueous seed extract and their AgNPs significantly increased glucose uptake by 150.45% and 156.00% of the control in C2C12 cells at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. Insulin secretion was also notably enhanced by 3.47- and 3.92-fold of the control after administering seed extracts and AgNPs, respectively, at 100 μg/mL. GC-MS and UPLC-MS analyses identified various compounds across different categories. Notably, the F2 fraction (methanol and water in ratio of 80:20 as eluting solvent) exhibited the highest glucose uptake activity (156.81% of control), while the F3 fraction (methanol and water in ratio of 70:30 as eluting solvent) fraction demonstrated the highest insulin secretion activity (3.70 folds of the control) among all fractions at 100 μg/mL. GC-MS analysis was employed to characterize both fractions, aiming to identify the compounds contributing to their antidiabetic potential. The study's findings concluded that both seed extracts and their AgNPs possess significant antidiabetic properties, with elevated activity observed in the case of AgNPs in both assays. Various compounds, including diosgenin, oleic acid, linoleic acid and palmitic acid esters were detected in the seed extracts, known for their reported antidiabetic and hypoglycemic effects.

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (Parsley): An Updated Review of the Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (parsley) is a popular medicinal plant widely used in different traditional medicines all over the world. This paper provides an updated review on the traditional use, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of parsley. Parsley contains volatile compounds such as terpenes and terpenoids in the essential oil, as well as phenolic compounds in the plant extract. Parsley is traditionally used as a diuretic, liver and stomach tonic, and for urolithiasis and indigestion. Pharmacological investigations also confirm several biological activities of parsley including hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, antiurolithiatic, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and antineoplastic effects in animal and cell-based studies. Parsley has currently demonstrated several pharmacological activities in preclinical studies; however, there is a big lack in clinical evidence. Considering parsley as a possible valuable medicinal food, future clinical trials are recommended to evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of the plant in different health conditions.

Pharmacological Studies on the Antidiabetic, Antioxidant, and Antimicrobial Efficacies of Commiphora myrrha Resin in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes in Rats: A Preclinical Study

RESULTS

The aqueous extracts of MAE were phytochemically analyzed, and the results revealed the presence of high concentrations of tannins, sterols, and isoprenoids (terpenoids), while steroids and flavonoids were found in moderate concentrations. The plant extract showed promising inhibition of the growth of gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens. It also showed that MAE has potential antihyperglycemic and antioxidant activities. Microscopic examination of the pancreas showed degenerative changes and atrophy associated with dilatation of the exocrine ducts in the STZ-induced diabetic rats, while the treatment revealed that the Langerhans islets were close to normal without any histopathological alteration.

CONCLUSION

The present results suggested that an aqueous extract of MAE could be considered an efficient antidiabetic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial treatment in the future.

Computation Screening of Multi-Target Antidiabetic Properties of Phytochemicals in Common Edible Mediterranean Plants

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease and one of the leading causes of deaths worldwide. Numerous studies support that the Mediterranean diet has preventive and treatment effects on diabetes. These effects have been attributed to the special bioactive composition of Mediterranean foods. The objective of this work was to decipher the antidiabetic activity of Mediterranean edible plant materials using the DIA-DB inverse virtual screening web server. A literature review on the antidiabetic potential of Mediterranean plants was performed and twenty plants were selected for further examination. Subsequently, the most abundant flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenes in plant materials were studied to predict their antidiabetic activity. Results showed that flavonoids are the most active phytochemicals as they modulate the function of 17 protein-targets and present high structural similarity with antidiabetic drugs. Their antidiabetic effects are linked with three mechanisms of action, namely (i) regulation of insulin secretion/sensitivity, (ii) regulation of glucose metabolism, and (iii) regulation of lipid metabolism. Overall, the findings can be utilized to understand the antidiabetic activity of edible Mediterranean plants pinpointing the most active phytoconstituents.

Dual Inhibition of Phosphodiesterase and Ca++ Channels Explains the Medicinal Use of Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) in Hyperactive Gut Disorders

The present study attempted to evaluate and rationalize the medicinal use of the methanolic extract of the fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca (B. aegyptiaca) in the treatment of hyperactive gut disorders. The in vivo, castor oil-induced diarrhea model in mice was followed to test its antidiarrheal effect. To test the antispasmodic effect and to explore its pharmacodynamic details, isolated small intestines (ileum) obtained from rats were selected to provide physiological conditions for the ex vivo assays. In the in vivo assays, the orally administered extract of B. aegyptiaca protected mice from diarrheal drops with resultant percent inhibitions of 40% and 80% at the respective doses of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg, while the highest protection (100%) was observed with a positive control drug, loperamide, at 10 mg/kg. In the ileum, B. aegyptiaca produced an antispasmodic effect in a concentration-dependent manner by inhibiting the carbachol (CCh; 1 µM) and high K⁺ (80 mM)-evoked spasms with resultant EC₅₀ values of 1.44 mg/mL (1.08–1.78) and 1.27 mg/mL (0.98–1.66), respectively. Papaverine, a known phosphodiesterase enzyme (PDE) inhibitor and blocker of Ca⁺⁺ channels (CCB), also inhibited both CCh and high K⁺ induced contractions at comparable EC₅₀ values of 8.72 µM (7.92–9.24) and 8.14 µM (7.62–8.84), respectively. Contrary to the extract and papaverine, verapamil showed distinctly higher potency in regard to inhibiting high K⁺, compared to CCh-evoked spasms that had EC₅₀ values of 0.16 µM (0.13–0.261) and 2.54 µM (2.28–2.92), respectively. The inhibitory effects of B. aegyptiaca on PDE were further confirmed when the pre-incubated extract shifted the isoprenaline-mediated relaxation curves (CRCs) towards the left, similar to papaverine, whereas the CCB-like effect was confirmed when the pre-incubated tissues with B. aegyptiaca caused deflection in the Ca⁺⁺ CRCs towards the right, constructed in Ca⁺⁺ free medium with suppression of the maximum response. Thus, this study provides detailed, mechanistic support for the medicinal use of B. aegyptiaca in the treatment of hyperactive gut disorders.

Zingiber officinale ameliorates diabetic nephropathy and hepatotoxicity in rats by preventing tissue injury and controlling liver/kidney function

BACKGROUND: Chronic hyperglycemia results in decrease glucose metabolism leading to nephropathy, hepatotoxicity and neuropathy. Diabetic complications are regarded globally as one of the leading cause of disability and mortality. OBJECTIVE: The study aims to evaluate the role of Zingiber officinale (ZO) on diabetic nephropathy and hepatotoxicity in rats. METHODS: Thirty diabetic rats and six non-diabetic rats were distributed into six groups (n = 6). Group 1 & 2 (nondiabetic and diabetic) received distilled water at 1 ml/kg. Groups 3–5 received (12.5, 25& 50) mg/kg of ZO respectively while group 6 received 100 mg/kg metformin. All treatments lasted for 28 days and rats were euthanized on day 29. Biochemical parameters, kidney and liver histology were evaluated. RESULTS: No significant change (P >  0.05) was noticed in blood glucose and creatinine levels of diabetic rats treated with 25 mg/kg ZO compared to control. The liver of 25 mg/kg ZO treated diabetic rats showed mild distortion of hepatocytes while kidneys of ZO treated diabetic rats showed mild distortion of renal tubules with few collagen deposits and intact Bowman’s capsule. CONCLUSIONS: ZO ameliorates diabetic complications by regulating biochemical parameters and preventing renal tubules and hepatocytes damage in rats.

Effect of Camel Milk on Glucose Homeostasis in Patients with Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

The effects of camel milk (CM) intake on glycemic control in patients with diabetes are controversial. This systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was conducted to summarize the effect of CM intake on glucose homeostasis parameters in patients with both types of diabetes mellitus; T1DM and T2DM. We searched Google Scholar, PubMed/MEDLINE, EBSCO host, CINAHL, ScienceDirect, Cochrane, ProQuest Medical, Web of Science, and Scopus databases from inception until the end of November 2021. Relevant RCTs were identified, and the effect size was reported as mean difference (MD) and standard deviation (SD). Parameters of glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting blood glucose (FBG), postprandial blood glucose (PBG), fasting serum insulin (FI), insulin resistance (expressed in terms of HOMA-IR), insulin dose (ID) received, serum insulin antibody (IA), and C-peptide (CP) were tested. Out of 4054 collected articles, 14 RCTs (total 663 subjects) were eligible for inclusion. The pooled results obtained using a random-effects model showed a statistically significant decrease in HbA1c levels (MD, −1.24, 95% confidence interval (CI): −2.00, −0.48, p < 0.001 heterogeneity (I2) = 94%) and ID received (MD, −16.72, 95% CI: −22.09, −11.35 p < 0.00001, I2 = 90%), with a clear tendency was shown, but non-significant, to decrease FBG (MD, −23.32, 95% CI: −47.33, 0.70, p = 0.06, I2 = 98%) in patients with diabetes who consumed CM in comparison to those on usual care. Conversely, the consumption of CM did not show significant reductions in the rest of the glucose homeostasis parameters. Subgroup analysis revealed that patients with T2DM were more beneficially affected by CM intake than those with T1DM in lowering FBG, while patients with T1DM were more beneficially affected by CM intake than those with T2DM in lowering HbA1c. Both fresh and treated (pasteurized/fermented) CM gave similar beneficial effects in lowering HbA1c. Lastly, a relatively superior effect for longer duration on shorter duration (>6 months, ≤6 months, respectively) of CM intake is found in lowering HbA1c. To conclude, long-term consumption of CM by patients with diabetes could be a useful adjuvant therapy alongside classical medications, especially in lowering the required insulin dose and HbA1c. Due to the high heterogeneity observed in the included studies, more controlled trials with a larger sample size are warranted to confirm our results and to control some confounders and interfering factors existing in the analyzed articles.

Development and Validation of Novel Gas Chromatography (GC) and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) Densitometry Methods for the Quantification of Stigmasterol 3-O-β-D-Glucopyranoside (S3G) in Balanites Aegyptiaca Extract: Application to Newly Formulated Balanites Capsules

Balanites aegyptiaca is a commonly used antihyperglycemic in Egyptian folk medicine. The objective of the present study is to develop two chromatographic methods for standardizing the Balanites extract by quantification of its main component, stigmasterol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (S3G). The first method is gas chromatography (GC) where nitrogen was adopted as the carrier gas. The second method was thin layer chromatography (TLC) densitometry where chromatographic separation was established on aluminum plates using chloroform; methanol was used as the mobile phase followed by a densitometric measurement at 254 nm. Validation of the proposed methods was applied per International Council for Harmonization (ICH) guidelines. Both methods were adopted for quantification of S3G in Balanites capsules. The standard calibration curve was established for S3G in the concentration range of 10–130 μg/mL and 0.5–7.5 μg/mL for the GC and TLC methods, respectively. A good linearity with a correlation coefficient of 0.999 was obtained for both methods. Furthermore, the mean percentage recovery was found to be 99.46% for GC and 100.67% for TLC. Good precision was achieved, with relative standard deviation values <1%, and finally, the limits of detection and quantification were 2.51 and 7.59 μg/mL for GC and 0.13 and 0.40 μg/mL for TLC, respectively.

EAM, Ndakidemi PA, Treydte AC. Anthropogenic Pressure on Tree Species Diversity, Composition, and Growth of Balanites aegyptiaca in Dinder Biosphere Reserve, Sudan

Anthropogenic disturbances, such as illegal harvesting and livestock browsing, often affect natural forests. However, the resulting tree species diversity, composition, and population structure have rarely been quantified. We assessed tree species diversity and importance value indices and, in particular, Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. population structure, across 100 sample plots of 25 m × 40 m in disturbed and non-disturbed sites at the Dinder Biosphere Reserve, Sudan, from April 2019 to April 2020. We found that the tree species diversity in non-disturbed sites was more than double that of disturbed sites (p < 0.001, T = 32.6), and seedlings and saplings comprised more than 72% of the entire tree population (F_2,48 = 116.4, p = 0.034; F_2,48 = 163.2, p = 0.021, respectively). The tree density of B. aegyptiaca in the disturbed site was less than half that of the non-disturbed site (p = 0.018, T = 2.6). Balanites aegyptiaca was seven times more aggregated in disturbed sites compared to more regularly spaced trees in non-disturbed sites (T = 39.3 and p < 0.001). The poor B. aegyptiaca population status of the disturbed site shows that the conservation of this vulnerable species is essential for a sustainable management and utilization scheme.

Phytochemicals and Biological Activity of Desert Date (Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile)

Many underutilized tree species are good sources of food, fodder and possible therapeutic agents. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile belongs to the Zygophyllaceae family and is popularly known as “desert date”, reflecting its edible fruits. This tree grows naturally in Africa, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. Local inhabitants use fruits, leaves, roots, stem and root bark of the species for the treatment of various ailments. Several research studies demonstrate that extracts and phytochemicals isolated from desert date display antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective and molluscicidal activities. Mesocarp of fruits, seeds, leaves, stem and root bark are rich sources of saponins. These tissues are also rich in phenolic acids, flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids and polysterols. Some constituents show antioxidant, anticancer and antidiabetic properties. The objective of this review is to summarize studies on diverse bioactive compounds and the beneficial properties of B. aegyptiaca.

Potentials and Safety of Date Palm Fruit against Diabetes: A Critical Review

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder triggered by disturbances in carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolisms, where either reduced secretion or sensitivity of insulin is observed coupled with poor glucose control. Date palm fruits are one of the fruits reported to have good potential in diabetes treatment due to its presence of polyphenols exerting strong antioxidant activities. Other possible mechanisms of action include the polyphenolic compounds, which can inhibit enzymes like α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Flavonoids in dates can stimulate β-cells by increasing the number of islets and β-cells, recovering endocrine pancreatic tissues, reducing β-cell apoptosis, activating insulin receptors following the increase in insulin secretion, in addition to improving diabetes-induced complications. In this review, the in vitro, in vivo, and human study-based evidence of date palm as an anti-diabetic fruit is summarised.

Reduction of blood glucose by plant extracts and their use in the treatment of diabetes mellitus; discrepancies in effectiveness between animal and human studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The global problem of diabetes, together with the limited access of large numbers of patients to conventional antidiabetic medicines, continues to drive the search for new agents. Ancient Asian systems such as traditional Chinese medicine, Japanese Kampo medicine, and Indian Ayurvedic medicine, as well as African traditional medicine and many others have identified numerous plants reported anecdotally to treat diabetes; there are probably more than 800 such plants for which there is scientific evidence for their activity, mostly from studies using various models of diabetes in experimental animals.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

Rather than a comprehensive coverage of the literature, this article aims to identify discrepancies between findings in animal and human studies, and to highlight some of the problems in developing plant extract-based medicines that lower blood glucose in patients with diabetes, as well as to suggest potential ways forward.

METHODS

In addition to searching the 2018 PubMed literature using the terms 'extract AND blood glucose, a search of the whole literature was conducted using the terms 'plant extracts' AND 'blood glucose' AND 'diabetes' AND 'double blind' with 'clinical trials' as a filter. A third search using PubMed and Medline was undertaken for systematic reviews and meta-analyses investigating the effects of plant extracts on blood glucose/glycosylated haemoglobin in patients with relevant metabolic pathologies.

FINDINGS

Despite numerous animal studies demonstrating the effects of plant extracts on blood glucose, few randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials have been conducted to confirm efficacy in treating humans with diabetes; there have been only a small number of systematic reviews with meta-analyses of clinical studies. Qualitative and quantitative discrepancies between animal and human clinical studies in some cases were marked; the factors contributing to this included variations in the products among different studies, the doses used, differences between animal models and the human disease, and the impact of concomitant therapy in patients, as well as differences in the duration of treatment, and the fact that treatment in animals may begin before or very soon after the induction of diabetes.

CONCLUSION

The potential afforded by natural products has not yet been realised in the context of treating diabetes mellitus. A systematic, coordinated, international effort is required to achieve the goal of providing anti-diabetic treatments derived from medicinal plants.

Evaluation of the Anti-Diabetic Activity of Some Common Herbs and Spices: Providing New Insights with Inverse Virtual Screening

Culinary herbs and spices are widely used as a traditional medicine in the treatment of diabetes and its complications, and there are several scientific studies in the literature supporting the use of these medicinal plants. However, there is often a lack of knowledge on the bioactive compounds of these herbs and spices and their mechanisms of action. The aim of this study was to use inverse virtual screening to provide insights into the bioactive compounds of common herbs and spices, and their potential molecular mechanisms of action in the treatment of diabetes. In this study, a library of over 2300 compounds derived from 30 common herbs and spices were screened in silico with the DIA-DB web server against 18 known diabetes drug targets. Over 900 compounds from the herbs and spices library were observed to have potential anti-diabetic activity and liquorice, hops, fennel, rosemary, and fenugreek were observed to be particularly enriched with potential anti-diabetic compounds. A large percentage of the compounds were observed to be potential polypharmacological agents regulating three or more anti-diabetic drug targets and included compounds such as achillin B from yarrow, asparasaponin I from fenugreek, bisdemethoxycurcumin from turmeric, carlinoside from lemongrass, cinnamtannin B1 from cinnamon, crocin from saffron and glabridin from liquorice. The major targets identified for the herbs and spices compounds were dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4), intestinal maltase-glucoamylase (MGAM), liver receptor homolog-1 (NR5A2), pancreatic alpha-amylase (AM2A), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARA), protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 9 (PTPN9), and retinol binding protein-4 (RBP4) with over 250 compounds observed to be potential inhibitors of these particular protein targets. Only bay leaves, liquorice and thyme were found to contain compounds that could potentially regulate all 18 protein targets followed by black pepper, cumin, dill, hops and marjoram with 17 protein targets. In most cases more than one compound within a given plant could potentially regulate a particular protein target. It was observed that through this multi-compound-multi target regulation of these specific protein targets that the major anti-diabetic effects of reduced hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia of the herbs and spices could be explained. The results of this study, taken together with the known scientific literature, indicated that the anti-diabetic potential of common culinary herbs and spices was the result of the collective action of more than one bioactive compound regulating and restoring several dysregulated and interconnected diabetic biological processes.

Anti diabetic property of aqueous extract of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni leaves in Streptozotocin-induced diabetes in albino rats

BACKGROUND

Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) natural, non-caloric sugar substitute is rich source of pharmacologically important glycoside stevioside that is linked to the pathology and complications of diabetes.

METHODS

The current research was carried out to explore the anti-diabetic effect of aqueous extract of Stevia rebaudiana leaves in albino rats. For this purpose, diabetes was induced by administration of streptozotocin (40 mg/kg body weight, intraperitoneally). The diabetic rats were administered with aqueous stevia extract at different dose levels (200, 300, 400 and 500 ppm/kg b.w) for 8 weeks; the control rats were fed basal diet during this period.

RESULTS

Stevia aqueous extract improved caloric management and weight control by decreasing the feed intake and body weight gain. Furthermore, intake of stevia extract resulted in significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the random blood glucose level (- 73.24%) and fasting blood glucose (- 66.09%) and glycosylated (HbA1c) hemoglobin (5.32%) while insulin (17.82 μIU/mL) and liver glycogen (45.02 mg/g) levels significantly improved in the diabetic rats, compared with the diabetic and non-diabetic control rats after 8 weeks study period.

CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that aqueous extact of stevia has anti-diabetic effects in albino rats, and therefore could be promising nutraceutical therapy for the management of diabetes and its associated complications.

Bio-efficacy of medicinal plants used for the management of diabetes mellitus in Gabon: An ethnopharmacological approach

BACKGROUND/AIM

People suffering of diabetes increased significantly worldwide. Population, in Sub-Saharan Africa and mainly in Gabon, rely on medicinal plants to manage diabetes, as well in rural as in urban areas. This study aimed to survey a wide range of Gabonese plants for their antidiabetic activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study focused on the identification of medicinal plants used in the local treatment of diabetes mellitus. Ethnobotanical investigations were carried out in rural and urban areas of three provinces of Gabon using a semi-structured interview.

RESULTS

About 50 plant species belonging to 31 families and 50 genera were recorded, a majority of which have been documented previously to have medicinal properties. Most have documented antidiabetic properties with characterized therapeutic chemical compounds. Of the plant parts used for treatment, stem barks were employed most frequently (50%), followed by leaves (26%); the remaining 24% comprised roots, fibers, fruit, bulbs, flowers, rhizom, skin, and stem. Regarding the mode of preparation, decoction was the most widely used (58%), followed by maceration (18%) and infusion (14%). Almost all the plant products were administered orally (98%).

CONCLUSIONS

Taken in concert, this study highlights the possibility of exploiting traditional knowledge of specific medicinal plants for the inexpensive treatment and management of diabetes.