Contemporary Aspects of Designing Marine Polysaccharide Microparticles as Drug Carriers for Biomedical Application

The main goal of modern pharmaceutical technology is to create new drug formulations that are safer and more effective. These formulations should allow targeted drug delivery, improved drug stability and bioavailability, fewer side effects, and reduced drug toxicity. One successful approach for achieving these objectives is using polymer microcarriers for drug delivery. They are effective for treating various diseases through different administration routes. When creating pharmaceutical systems, choosing the right drug carrier is crucial. Biomaterials have become increasingly popular over the past few decades due to their lack of toxicity, renewable sources, and affordability. Marine polysaccharides, in particular, have been widely used as substitutes for synthetic polymers in drug carrier applications. Their inherent properties, such as biodegradability and biocompatibility, make marine polysaccharide-based microcarriers a prospective platform for developing drug delivery systems. This review paper explores the principles of microparticle design using marine polysaccharides as drug carriers. By reviewing the current literature, the paper highlights the challenges of formulating polymer microparticles, and proposes various technological solutions. It also outlines future perspectives for developing marine polysaccharides as drug microcarriers.

The Impact of Hypromellose on Pharmaceutical Properties of Alginate Microparticles as Novel Drug Carriers for Posaconazole

Fungal infections are a group of diseases which are challenging to treat because of drug-resistant fungi species, drug toxicity, and often severe patient conditions. Hence, research into new treatments, including new therapeutic substances and novel drug delivery systems, is being performed. Mucoadhesive dosage forms are beneficial to improving drug bioavailability by prolonging the residence time at the site of application. Sodium alginate is a natural polymer with favorable mucoadhesive and gelling properties, although its precipitation in acidic pH significantly disrupts the process of drug release in gastric conditions. Hypromellose is a hydrophilic, semi-synthetic cellulose derivative with mucoadhesive properties, which is widely used as a control release agent in pharmaceutical technology. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of hypromellose on alginate microparticles with posaconazole, designed to modify drug release and to improve their mucoadhesive properties for both oral or vaginal application.

Recent advances in cellulose, pectin, carrageenan and alginate-based oral drug delivery systems

Polymers-based drug delivery systems constitute one of the highly explored thrust areas in the field of the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. In the past years, the properties of polymers have been modified in context to their solubility, release kinetics, targeted action site, absorption, and therapeutic efficacy. Despite the availability of diverse synthetic polymers for the bioavailability enhancement of drugs, the use of natural polymers is still highly recommended due to their easy availability, accessibility, and non-toxicity. The aim of the review is to provide the available literature of the last five years on oral drug delivery systems based on four natural polymers i.e., cellulose, pectin, carrageenan, and alginate in a concise and tabulated manner. In this review, most of the information is in tabulated form to provide easy accessibility to the reader. The data related to active pharmaceutical ingredients and supported components in different formulations of the mentioned polymers have been made available.

Chitosan-coated alginate (CCA) nanoparticles for augmentation of topical antihistaminic activity of diphenhydramine: in-vitro optimization, skin histopathology and pharmacodynamic studies with in vitro/in vivo correlation

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to formulate chitosan-coated alginate nanoparticles containing the drug diphenhydramine hydrochloride (DHH).

SIGNIFICANCE

Diphenhydramine hydrochloride (DHH) is the prototype of H₁-antihistaminic drugs. It is a lipophilic drug, that easily crosses the blood-brain barrier when taken orally causing decrements in alertness and performance. Multiple applications of topical drug product are required. Thus, drug incorporation in nanocarriers would increase the skin penetration powers increasing the drug efficacy.

METHODS

Chitosan coated alginate (CCA) nanoparticles were prepared via polyelectrolyte complex technique adopting 2³ full factorial design. Three factors, namely, alginate concentration, drug to alginate ratio and CaCl₂ volume, each in two levels were studied. The prepared formulae were evaluated utilizing entrapment efficiency (EE), particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP) and in vitro release. Characterization process was then followed by optimization.

RESULTS

At alginate conc. of 1%, drug to alginate ratio of 2:1 and CaCl₂ volume of 4 mL, NP8 was chosen as a candidate formula. Histopathological examination on shaved rat dorsal skin disclosed the safety of NP8 with no signs of necrosis or even inflammation. The enhanced topical delivery of diphenhydramine hydrochloride enclosed in the developed nanoparticles was further proved by induction of allergic reaction using intradermal histamine injection. The results revealed the superior ability of NP8 to decrease the diameter of the formed wheal in comparison to marketed DHH product.

CONCLUSION

Thus, CCA nanoparticles are considered as a candidate nanocarriers for fortifying the topical antihistaminic activity of DHH.

Tailoring functional spray-dried powder platform for efficient donepezil nose-to-brain delivery

Shortcomings of oral donepezil administration in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease have paved the way for ongoing investigations towards more efficient and safe donepezil nose-to-brain delivery. Herein we present the development of advantageous powder platform for donepezil nose-to-brain delivery, coupling careful design of chitosan and mannitol-based carrier matrix with spray-drying technology advantages and early consideration of adequate nasal administration mode, employing QbD approach. Unprecedentedly, ultrasonic nozzle was used to atomise the drying feed in response to size-related requirements for nasal aerosol particles. The optimised spray-drying process resulted in free-flowable dry powder with a great majority of particles larger than 10 µm, ensuring localised nasal deposition upon aerosolization, as evidenced by using 3D-printed nasal cavity model. QbD approach coupling formulation, process and administration parameters enabled optimisation of drug deposition profile reaching tremendously high 65.5 % of the applied dose deposited in the olfactory region. The leading formulation exhibited favourable swelling, mucoadhesion, drug release and permeation-enhancing properties, suiting the needs for efficient brain-targeted delivery. Results of in vitro biocompatibility and physico-chemical stability studies confirmed the leading formulation potential for safe and efficient donepezil nose-to-brain delivery. The obtained results encourage extending the study to an appropriate in vivo model needed for the final proof-of-concept.

Neuroprotective effect of sodium alginate against chromium-induced brain damage in rats

Oral exposure to chromium hexavalent [Cr(VI)] has disastrous impacts and affects many people worldwide. Cr(VI) triggers neurotoxicity via its high oxidation potential by generating high amount of ROS. Meanwhile, alginates are known by their chelating activity and ability to bind heavy metals and toxins, in addition to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities. So, this study aimed to explore the neuroprotective potential of sodium alginate (SA) against cellular injury, DNA damage, macromolecule alterations, and apoptosis induced by oral ingestion of Cr. Forty Wistar male rats were divided into 4 groups; group I: standard control ingested with the vehicle solution, group II: Cr-intoxicated group received 10 mg/kg b.w. of potassium dichromate orally by gavage and kept without treatment, group III: SA group in which rats were orally exposed to 200 mg/kg b.w. of SA only, and group IV: SA-treated group that received 200 mg/kg b.w. of SA along with Cr for 28 consecutive days. Neurotransmitters such as Acetyl choline esterase (AchE), Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) concentrations, Dopamine (DA) and 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) levels were assessed in brain homogenate tissues. Neurobiochemical markers; NAD⁺ and S100B protein were investigated in the brain tissues and serum, respectively. Levels of HSP70, caspase-3, protein profiling were evaluated. DNA damage was determined using the Comet assay. Results revealed a significant reduction in the AchE and MAOA concentrations, DA, 5-HT, and NAD⁺ levels, with an increase in the S100B protein levels. Cr(VI) altered protein pattern and caused DNA damage. High levels of HSP70 and caspase-3 proteins were observed. Fortunately, oral administration of SA prevented the accumulation of Cr in brain homogenates and significantly improved all investigated parameters. SA attenuated the ROS production and relieved the oxidative stress by its active constituents. SA can protect against cellular and DNA damage and limit apoptosis. SA could be a promising neuroprotective agent against Cr(VI)-inducing toxicity.

Modification of Alginates to Modulate Their Physic-Chemical Properties and Obtain Biomaterials with Different Functional Properties

Modified alginates have a wide range of applications, including in the manufacture of dressings and scaffolds used for regenerative medicine, in systems for selective drug delivery, and as hydrogel materials. This literature review discusses the methods used to modify alginates and obtain materials with new or improved functional properties. It discusses the diverse biological and functional activity of alginates. It presents methods of modification that utilize both natural and synthetic peptides, and describes their influence on the biological properties of the alginates. The success of functionalization depends on the reaction conditions being sufficient to guarantee the desired transformations and provide modified alginates with new desirable properties, but mild enough to prevent degradation of the alginates. This review is a literature description of efficient methods of alginate functionalization using biologically active ligands. Particular attention was paid to methods of alginate functionalization with peptides, because the combination of the properties of alginates and peptides leads to the obtaining of conjugates with properties resulting from both components as well as a completely new, different functionality.

Sustained In Vitro and In Vivo Delivery of Metformin from Plant Pollen-Derived Composite Microcapsules

We developed a dual microencapsulation platform for the type 2 diabetes drug metformin (MTF), which is aimed to increase its bioavailability. We report the use of Lycopodium clavatum sporopollenin (LCS), derived from their natural spores, and raw Phoenix dactylifera L. (date palm) pollens (DPP) for MTF microencapsulation. MTF was loaded into LCS and DPP via a vacuum and a novel method of hydration-induced swelling. The loading capacity (LC) and encapsulation efficiency (EE) percentages for MTF-loaded LCS and MTF-loaded DPP microcapsules were 14.9% ± 0.7, 29.8 ± 0.8, and 15.2% ± 0.7, 30.3 ± 1.0, respectively. The release of MTF from MTF-loaded LCS microcapsules was additionally controlled by re-encapsulating the loaded microcapsules into calcium alginate (ALG) microbeads via ionotropic gelation, where the release of MTF was found to be significantly slower and pH-dependent. The pharmacokinetic parameters, obtained from the in vivo study, revealed that the relative bioavailability of the MTF-loaded LCS-ALG beads was 1.215 times higher compared to pure MTF, following oral administration of a single dose equivalent to 25 mg/kg body weight MTF to streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic male Sprague-Dawley rats. Significant hypoglycemic effect was obtained for STZ-induced diabetic rats orally treated with MTF-loaded LCS-ALG beads compared to control diabetic rats. Over a period of 29 days, the STZ-induced diabetic rats treated with MTF-loaded LCS-ALG beads showed a decrease in the aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), triglycerides, cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels, as well as an increase in glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and a recovery in the oxidative stress biomarker, lipid peroxidation (LPx). In addition, histopathological studies of liver, pancreas, kidney, and testes suggested that MTF-loaded LCS-ALG beads improved the degenerative changes in organs of diabetic rats. The LCS-ALG platform for dual encapsulation of MTF achieved sustained MTF delivery and enhancement of bioavailability, as well as the improved biochemical and histopathological characteristics in in vivo studies, opening many other intriguing applications in sustained drug delivery.

Synergistic effect of novel chitosan combined metformin drug on streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus rat

Metformin is widely used as a frontline medicine of type-II diabetes. Frequent overdose side-effects and their consequent adversative need to be reduced. The novel source of marine hydrozoa, Thyroscyphus ramosus derived chitosan combined metformin drug was administrated to evaluate the antidiabetic potential on a high-fat diet (HFD) with streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats. The primary analysis of In vitro antioxidant activity was tested for various solvent dissolved chitosan. Based on their IC₅₀ dose values, CsnAA was chosen for further experiments. The chitosan was combined with metformin by sonication and confirmed through XRD, FTIR and SEM analysis. The enhanced activity was observed in 100 mg/kg metformin combined with CSN500mg/kg. The level of serum bilirubin, total protein, SGH, liver glycogen, Glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6- phosphatase values were significantly similar to metformin 300 mg/kg treated group. With this beneficiary, the novel chitosan was recommended to administrate with metformin to improve the drug efficacy and reduction of overdose lethal effects.

Calcium Chloride Modified Alginate Microparticles Formulated by the Spray Drying Process: A Strategy to Prolong the Release of Freely Soluble Drugs

Alginate (ALG) cross-linking by CaCl₂ is a promising strategy to obtain modified-release drug delivery systems with mucoadhesive properties. However, current technologies to produce CaCl₂ cross-linked alginate microparticles possess major disadvantages, such as a poor encapsulation efficiency of water-soluble drugs and a difficulty in controlling the process. Hence, this study presents a novel method that streamlines microparticle production by spray drying; a rapid, continuous, reproducible, and scalable technique enabling obtainment of a product with low moisture content, high drug loading, and a high production yield. To model a freely water-soluble drug, metformin hydrochloride (MF) was selected. It was observed that MF was successfully encapsulated in alginate microparticles cross-linked by CaCl₂ using a one-step drying process. Modification of ALG provided drug release prolongation-particles obtained from 2% ALG cross-linked by 0.1% CaCl₂ with a prolonged MF rate of dissolution of up to 12 h. Cross-linking of the ALG microparticles structure by CaCl₂ decreased the swelling ratio and improved the mucoadhesive properties which were evaluated using porcine stomach mucosa.

The Influence of Chitosan Cross-linking on the Properties of Alginate Microparticles with Metformin Hydrochloride-In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Sodium alginate is a polymer with unique ability to gel with different cross-linking agents in result of ionic and electrostatic interactions. Chitosan cross-linked alginate provides improvement of swelling and mucoadhesive properties and might be used to design sustained release dosage forms. Therefore, the aim of this research was to develop and evaluate possibility of preparing chitosan cross-linked alginate microparticles containing metformin hydrochloride by the spray-drying method. In addition, influence of cross-linking agent on the properties of microparticles was evaluated. Formulation of microparticles prepared by the spray drying of 2% alginate solution cross-linked by 0.1% chitosan was characterized by good mucoadhesive properties, high drug loading and prolonged metformin hydrochloride release. It was shown that designed microparticles reduced rat glucose blood level, delayed absorption of metformin hydrochloride and provided stable plasma drug concentration. Additionally, histopathological studies of pancreas, liver and kidneys indicated that all prepared microparticles improved degenerative changes in organs of diabetic rats. Moreover, no toxicity effect and no changes in rats behavior after oral administration of chitosan cross-linked alginate microparticles were noted.

Alginate: Current Use and Future Perspectives in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

Over the last decades, alginates, natural multifunctional polymers, have increasingly drawn attention as attractive compounds in the biomedical and pharmaceutical fields due to their unique physicochemical properties and versatile biological activities. The focus of the paper is to describe biological and pharmacological activity of alginates and to discuss the present use and future possibilities of alginates as a tool in drug formulation. The recent technological advancements with using alginates, issues related to alginates suitability as matrix for three-dimensional tissue cultures, adjuvants of antibiotics, and antiviral agents in cell transplantation in diabetes or neurodegenerative diseases treatment, and an update on the antimicrobial and antiviral therapy of the alginate based drugs are also highlighted.