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Augsburger P, Liimatta J, Flück CE. Update on Adrenarche-Still a Mystery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2024; 109:1403-1422. [PMID: 38181424 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgae008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
CONTEXT Adrenarche marks the timepoint of human adrenal development when the cortex starts secreting androgens in increasing amounts, in healthy children at age 8-9 years, with premature adrenarche (PA) earlier. Because the molecular regulation and significance of adrenarche are unknown, this prepubertal event is characterized descriptively, and PA is a diagnosis by exclusion with unclear long-term consequences. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION We searched the literature of the past 5 years, including original articles, reviews, and meta-analyses from PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus, using search terms adrenarche, pubarche, DHEAS, steroidogenesis, adrenal, and zona reticularis. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Numerous studies addressed different topics of adrenarche and PA. Although basic studies on human adrenal development, zonation, and zona reticularis function enhanced our knowledge, the exact mechanism leading to adrenarche remains unsolved. Many regulators seem involved. A promising marker of adrenarche (11-ketotestosterone) was found in the 11-oxy androgen pathway. By current definition, the prevalence of PA can be as high as 9% to 23% in girls and 2% to 10% in boys, but only a subset of these children might face related adverse health outcomes. CONCLUSION New criteria for defining adrenarche and PA are needed to identify children at risk for later disease and to spare children with a normal variation. Further research is therefore required to understand adrenarche. Prospective, long-term studies should characterize prenatal or early postnatal developmental pathways that modulate trajectories of birth size, early postnatal growth, childhood overweight/obesity, adrenarche and puberty onset, and lead to abnormal sexual maturation, fertility, and other adverse outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Augsburger
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology, and Metabolism, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jani Liimatta
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology, and Metabolism, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
- Kuopio Pediatric Research Unit (KuPRU), University of Eastern Finland and Kuopio University Hospital, 70029 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology, and Metabolism, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
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Ariyeloye S, Kämmerer S, Klapproth E, Wielockx B, El-Armouche A. Intertwined regulators: hypoxia pathway proteins, microRNAs, and phosphodiesterases in the control of steroidogenesis. Pflugers Arch 2024:10.1007/s00424-024-02921-4. [PMID: 38355819 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-024-02921-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Oxygen sensing is of paramount importance for maintaining cellular and systemic homeostasis. In response to diminished oxygen levels, the hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) orchestrate various biological processes. These pivotal transcription factors have been identified as key regulators of several biological events. Notably, extensive research from our group and others has demonstrated that HIF1α exerts an inverse regulatory effect on steroidogenesis, leading to the suppression of crucial steroidogenic enzyme expression and a subsequent decrease in steroid levels. These steroid hormones occupy pivotal roles in governing a myriad of physiological processes. Substantial or prolonged fluctuations in steroid levels carry detrimental consequences across multiple organ systems and underlie various pathological conditions, including metabolic and immune disorders. MicroRNAs serve as potent mediators of multifaceted gene regulatory mechanisms, acting as influential epigenetic regulators that modulate a broad spectrum of gene expressions. Concomitantly, phosphodiesterases (PDEs) play a crucial role in governing signal transduction. PDEs meticulously manage intracellular levels of both cAMP and cGMP, along with their respective signaling pathways and downstream targets. Intriguingly, an intricate interplay seems to exist between hypoxia signaling, microRNAs, and PDEs in the regulation of steroidogenesis. This review highlights recent advances in our understanding of the role of microRNAs during hypoxia-driven processes, including steroidogenesis, as well as the possibilities that exist in the application of HIF prolyl hydroxylase (PHD) inhibitors for the modulation of steroidogenesis.
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Grants
- CRC/Transregio 205/1, Project No. 314061271 - TRR205, "The Adrenal: Central Relay in Health and Disease" (A02) to B.W. and A.E.-A.; DFG grants WI3291/12-1 and 13-1 to B.W, EL 270/7-3 to A.E.-A., KA 4194/3-3 to S.K.. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- This work was also supported by a grant from the DFG priority program µBONE 2084 to B.W.; project no. 288034826 - international research training group (IRTG) 2251 to A.E.A. and S.K. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- This work was also supported by a grant from the DFG priority program µBONE 2084 to B.W.; project no. 288034826 - international research training group (IRTG) 2251 to A.E.A. and S.K. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- CRC/Transregio 205/1, Project No. 314061271 - TRR205, "The Adrenal: Central Relay in Health and Disease" (A02) to B.W. and A.E.-A.; DFG grants WI3291/12-1 and 13-1 to B.W, EL 270/7-3 to A.E.-A., KA 4194/3-3 to S.K.. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- CRC/Transregio 205/1, Project No. 314061271 - TRR205, "The Adrenal: Central Relay in Health and Disease" (A02) to B.W. and A.E.-A.; DFG grants WI3291/12-1 and 13-1 to B.W, EL 270/7-3 to A.E.-A., KA 4194/3-3 to S.K.. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Ariyeloye
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Dresden, Germany
| | - Susanne Kämmerer
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Erik Klapproth
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ben Wielockx
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Ali El-Armouche
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Faculty, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstrasse 74, 01307, Dresden, Germany.
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Azhar S, Shen WJ, Hu Z, Kraemer FB. MicroRNA regulation of adrenal glucocorticoid and androgen biosynthesis. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2023; 124:1-37. [PMID: 38408797 DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2023.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Steroid hormones are derived from a common precursor molecule, cholesterol, and regulate a wide range of physiologic function including reproduction, salt balance, maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, response to stress, neuronal function, and various metabolic processes. Among the steroids synthesized by the adrenal and gonadal tissues, adrenal mineralocorticoids, and glucocorticoids are essential for life. The process of steroidogenesis is regulated at multiple levels largely by transcriptional, posttranscriptional, translational, and posttranslational regulation of the steroidogenic enzymes (i.e., cytochrome P450s and hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases), cellular compartmentalization of the steroidogenic enzymes, and cholesterol processing and transport proteins. In recent years, small noncoding RNAs, termed microRNAs (miRNAs) have been recognized as major post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression with essential roles in numerous biological processes and disease pathologies. Although their role in the regulation of steroidogenesis is still emerging, several recent studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of the role miRNAs play in the regulation of the steroidogenic process. This chapter focuses on the recent developments in miRNA regulation of adrenal glucocorticoid and androgen production in humans and rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman Azhar
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, United States; Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, CA, United States.
| | - Wen-Jun Shen
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, United States; Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Zhigang Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology and College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Fredric B Kraemer
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, United States; Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States; Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, CA, United States
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Marciniak M, Sato M, Rutkowski R, Zawada A, Juchacz A, Mahadea D, Grzymisławski M, Dobrowolska A, Kawka E, Korybalska K, Bręborowicz A, Witowski J, Kanikowska D. Effect of the one-day fasting on cortisol and DHEA daily rhythm regarding sex, chronotype, and age among obese adults. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1078508. [PMID: 36814510 PMCID: PMC9940638 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1078508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Physiological and biochemical processes in the human body occur in a specific order and show rhythmic variability. Time dependence characterizes the secretion of cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). One-day fasting implies alternating fasting days and eating days. The study aimed to determine how 24-h fasting affects the daily rhythm of cortisol and DHEA levels in obese people while taking into account gender and chronotype. Methods Forty-nine obese patients (BMI 32.2-67.1 kg/m2; 25 women and 24 men) underwent a 3-week hospital-controlled calorie restriction diet to reduce body weight. During hospitalization, patients fasted for 1 day, during which only water could be consumed. Samples of whole mixed unstimulated saliva were collected at 2-3-h intervals over a 64-h period and analyzed for cortisol and DHEA by immunoassays. The individual chronotypes were assessed by the morning and evening questionnaire, according to Horne and Östberg. Three components of daily rhythm were evaluated: amplitude, acrophase, and the so-called MESOR. Results Cortisol rhythm showed differences in amplitude (p = 0.0127) and acrophase (p = 0.0005). The amplitude on the fasting day was 11% higher (p = 0.224) than the day after. The acrophase advanced on the day of fasting, 48 min earlier than the day before (p = 0.0064), and by 39 min to the day after fasting (p = 0.0005). In the rhythm of DHEA, differences were found in the MESOR (p = 0.0381). The MESOR on the fasting day increased. Discussion Our results obtained during 64 consecutive hours of saliva sampling suggest that one-day fasting may affect three components of cortisol and DHEA daily rhythm. Additionally, no differences were found in the daily rhythm between the morning and evening chronotypes and between females and males. Although aging did not influence daily cortisol rhythm, DHEA amplitude, MESOR, and acrophase changed with age. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first presentation of changes in DHEA rhythm during one-day fasting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martyna Marciniak
- Department of Pathophysiology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland,Department of Gastroenterology, Dietetics and Internal Diseases, Poznan University of Medical Science, Poznan, Poland
| | - Maki Sato
- Institutional Research, Aichi Medical University School of Medicine, Nagakute, Japan
| | - Rafał Rutkowski
- Department of Pathophysiology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Zawada
- Department of Gastroenterology, Dietetics and Internal Diseases, Poznan University of Medical Science, Poznan, Poland
| | - Aldona Juchacz
- Greater Poland Center of Pulmonology and Thoracic Surgery of Eugenia and Janusz Zeyland, Poznan, Poland
| | - Dagmara Mahadea
- Department of Gastroenterology, Dietetics and Internal Diseases, Poznan University of Medical Science, Poznan, Poland
| | - Marian Grzymisławski
- Department of Gastroenterology, Dietetics and Internal Diseases, Poznan University of Medical Science, Poznan, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Dobrowolska
- Department of Gastroenterology, Dietetics and Internal Diseases, Poznan University of Medical Science, Poznan, Poland
| | - Edyta Kawka
- Department of Pathophysiology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Korybalska
- Department of Pathophysiology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Andrzej Bręborowicz
- Department of Pathophysiology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland,Collegium Medicum, Zielona Góra University, Zielona Góra, Poland
| | - Janusz Witowski
- Department of Pathophysiology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Dominika Kanikowska
- Department of Pathophysiology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland,*Correspondence: Dominika Kanikowska,
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Blanco-Nistal MM, Fernández-Fernández JA. Glucocorticoid Effect in Cancer Patients. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2704:339-352. [PMID: 37642855 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3385-4_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
The use of glucocorticoids is very varied in the context of cancer patients and includes the treatment of symptoms related to cancer, but also the management of the most common side effects of antitumor treatments or adverse events related to the immune system. There is a quantity of experimental evidence demonstrating that cancer cells are immunogenic. However, the effective activation of anticancer T cell responses closely depends on an efficient antigen presentation carried out by professional antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells (DCs). The classic strategies to improve the medical management of inflammation are aimed at exacerbating the host's immune response. Although successful in treating a number of diseases, these drugs have limited efficacy and variable responses can lead to unpredictable results. The ideal therapy should reduce inflammation without inducing immunosuppression and remains a challenge for healthcare personnel.
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Detomas M, Pivonello C, Pellegrini B, Landwehr LS, Sbiera S, Pivonello R, Ronchi CL, Colao A, Altieri B, De Martino MC. MicroRNAs and Long Non-Coding RNAs in Adrenocortical Carcinoma. Cells 2022; 11:cells11142234. [PMID: 35883677 PMCID: PMC9324008 DOI: 10.3390/cells11142234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a type of genetic material that do not encode proteins but regulate the gene expression at an epigenetic level, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). The role played by ncRNAs in many physiological and pathological processes has gained attention during the last few decades, as they might be useful in the diagnosis, treatment and management of several human disorders, including endocrine and oncological diseases. Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare and aggressive endocrine cancer, still characterized by high mortality and morbidity due to both endocrine and oncological complications. Despite the rarity of this disease, recently, the role of ncRNA has been quite extensively evaluated in ACC. In order to better explore the role of the ncRNA in human ACC, this review summarizes the current knowledge on ncRNA dysregulation in ACC and its potential role in the diagnosis, treatment, and management of this tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Detomas
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital Würzburg, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (M.D.); (L.-S.L.); (S.S.); (C.L.R.); (B.A.)
| | - Claudia Pivonello
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Università “Federico II” di Napoli, 80131 Naples, Italy; (C.P.); (B.P.); (R.P.); (A.C.)
| | - Bianca Pellegrini
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Università “Federico II” di Napoli, 80131 Naples, Italy; (C.P.); (B.P.); (R.P.); (A.C.)
| | - Laura-Sophie Landwehr
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital Würzburg, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (M.D.); (L.-S.L.); (S.S.); (C.L.R.); (B.A.)
| | - Silviu Sbiera
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital Würzburg, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (M.D.); (L.-S.L.); (S.S.); (C.L.R.); (B.A.)
| | - Rosario Pivonello
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Università “Federico II” di Napoli, 80131 Naples, Italy; (C.P.); (B.P.); (R.P.); (A.C.)
- Unesco Chair for Health Education and Sustainable Development, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Cristina L. Ronchi
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital Würzburg, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (M.D.); (L.-S.L.); (S.S.); (C.L.R.); (B.A.)
- Institute of Metabolism and System Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (CEDAM), Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Annamaria Colao
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Università “Federico II” di Napoli, 80131 Naples, Italy; (C.P.); (B.P.); (R.P.); (A.C.)
- Unesco Chair for Health Education and Sustainable Development, Federico II University, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Barbara Altieri
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital Würzburg, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; (M.D.); (L.-S.L.); (S.S.); (C.L.R.); (B.A.)
| | - Maria Cristina De Martino
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Chirurgia, Università “Federico II” di Napoli, 80131 Naples, Italy; (C.P.); (B.P.); (R.P.); (A.C.)
- Correspondence:
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Vetrivel S, Zhang R, Engel M, Oßwald A, Watts D, Chen A, Wielockx B, Sbiera S, Reincke M, Riester A. Characterization of Adrenal miRNA-Based Dysregulations in Cushing's Syndrome. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147676. [PMID: 35887024 PMCID: PMC9320303 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
MiRNAs are important epigenetic players with tissue- and disease-specific effects. In this study, our aim was to investigate the putative differential expression of miRNAs in adrenal tissues from different forms of Cushing’s syndrome (CS). For this, miRNA-based next-generation sequencing was performed in adrenal tissues taken from patients with ACTH-independent cortisol-producing adrenocortical adenomas (CPA), from patients with ACTH-dependent pituitary Cushing’s disease (CD) after bilateral adrenalectomy, and from control subjects. A confirmatory QPCR was also performed in adrenals from patients with other CS subtypes, such as primary bilateral macronodular hyperplasia and ectopic CS. Sequencing revealed significant differences in the miRNA profiles of CD and CPA. QPCR revealed the upregulated expression of miR-1247-5p in CPA and PBMAH (log2 fold change > 2.5, p < 0.05). MiR-379-5p was found to be upregulated in PBMAH and CD (log2 fold change > 1.8, p < 0.05). Analyses of miR-1247-5p and miR-379-5p expression in the adrenals of mice which had been exposed to short-term ACTH stimulation showed no influence on the adrenal miRNA expression profiles. For miRNA-specific target prediction, RNA-seq data from the adrenals of CPA, PBMAH, and control samples were analyzed with different bioinformatic platforms. The analyses revealed that both miR-1247-5p and miR-379-5p target specific genes in the WNT signaling pathway. In conclusion, this study identified distinct adrenal miRNAs as being associated with CS subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharmilee Vetrivel
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, LMU Klinikum, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany; (S.V.); (R.Z.); (A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Ru Zhang
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, LMU Klinikum, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany; (S.V.); (R.Z.); (A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Mareen Engel
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804 Munich, Germany; (M.E.); (A.C.)
| | - Andrea Oßwald
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, LMU Klinikum, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany; (S.V.); (R.Z.); (A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Deepika Watts
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (D.W.); (B.W.)
| | - Alon Chen
- Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, 80804 Munich, Germany; (M.E.); (A.C.)
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ben Wielockx
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; (D.W.); (B.W.)
| | - Silviu Sbiera
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany;
| | - Martin Reincke
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, LMU Klinikum, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany; (S.V.); (R.Z.); (A.O.); (M.R.)
| | - Anna Riester
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, LMU Klinikum, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany; (S.V.); (R.Z.); (A.O.); (M.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-89-440052111
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Serafini G, Trabucco A, Corsini G, Escelsior A, Amerio A, Aguglia A, Nasrallah H, Amore M. The potential of microRNAs as putative biomarkers in major depressive disorder and suicidal behavior. Biomark Neuropsychiatry 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bionps.2021.100035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Reichardt SD, Amouret A, Muzzi C, Vettorazzi S, Tuckermann JP, Lühder F, Reichardt HM. The Role of Glucocorticoids in Inflammatory Diseases. Cells 2021; 10:cells10112921. [PMID: 34831143 PMCID: PMC8616489 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
For more than 70 years, glucocorticoids (GCs) have been a powerful and affordable treatment option for inflammatory diseases. However, their benefits do not come without a cost, since GCs also cause side effects. Therefore, strong efforts are being made to improve their therapeutic index. In this review, we illustrate the mechanisms and target cells of GCs in the pathogenesis and treatment of some of the most frequent inflammatory disorders affecting the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, the lung, and the joints, as well as graft-versus-host disease, which often develops after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In addition, an overview is provided of novel approaches aimed at improving GC therapy based on chemical modifications or GC delivery using nanoformulations. GCs remain a topic of highly active scientific research despite being one of the oldest class of drugs in medical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sybille D. Reichardt
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; (S.D.R.); (A.A.); (C.M.)
| | - Agathe Amouret
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; (S.D.R.); (A.A.); (C.M.)
| | - Chiara Muzzi
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; (S.D.R.); (A.A.); (C.M.)
| | - Sabine Vettorazzi
- Institute of Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (S.V.); (J.P.T.)
| | - Jan P. Tuckermann
- Institute of Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (S.V.); (J.P.T.)
| | - Fred Lühder
- Institute for Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis Research, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37075 Göttingen, Germany;
| | - Holger M. Reichardt
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany; (S.D.R.); (A.A.); (C.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-551-3963365
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MacKenzie SM, Saunders H, van Kralingen JC, Robertson S, Riddell A, Zennaro MC, Davies E. Circulating microRNAs as Diagnostic Markers in Primary Aldosteronism. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13215312. [PMID: 34771478 PMCID: PMC8582381 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Many patients remain at increased risk of primary aldosteronism (PA) and its consequences due to the difficulty of accurate diagnosis. MicroRNAs circulating in the bloodstream are emerging as biomarkers for disease, particularly specific forms of cancer. In this review article, we argue that they may also have a role in the diagnosis of PA, if observed changes in the microRNA profile of PA tissue are reflected in circulating microRNAs, which can be sampled and analysed readily in a clinical setting. However, for various practical reasons, studies of potential diagnostic circulating microRNAs have often proved difficult to reproduce consistently. We describe these problems and how they might be overcome using, as an example, our design of the circulating microRNA arm of the ongoing ENS@T-HT project, which is intended to confirm whether circulating microRNAs can serve as biomarkers for PA. Abstract Primary aldosteronism (PA) is a common and highly treatable condition, usually resulting from adrenocortical tumorous growth or hyperplasia. PA is currently underdiagnosed owing to its complex and protracted diagnostic procedures. A simplified biomarker-based test would be highly valuable in reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Circulating microRNAs are emerging as potential biomarkers for a number of conditions due to their stability and accessibility. PA is known to alter microRNA expression in adrenocortical tissue; if these changes or their effects are mirrored in the circulating miRNA profile, then this could be exploited by a diagnostic test. However, the reproducibility of studies to identify biomarker-circulating microRNAs has proved difficult for other conditions due to a series of technical challenges. Therefore, any studies seeking to definitively identify circulating microRNA biomarkers of PA must address this in their design. To this end, we are currently conducting the circulating microRNA arm of the ongoing ENS@T-HT study. In this review article, we present evidence to support the utility of circulating microRNAs as PA biomarkers, describe the practical challenges to this approach and, using ENS@T-HT as an example, discuss how these might be overcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M. MacKenzie
- British Heart Foundation Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre (BHF GCRC), Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences (ICAMS), University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (H.S.); (J.C.v.K.); (S.R.); (A.R.); (E.D.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Hannah Saunders
- British Heart Foundation Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre (BHF GCRC), Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences (ICAMS), University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (H.S.); (J.C.v.K.); (S.R.); (A.R.); (E.D.)
| | - Josie C. van Kralingen
- British Heart Foundation Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre (BHF GCRC), Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences (ICAMS), University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (H.S.); (J.C.v.K.); (S.R.); (A.R.); (E.D.)
| | - Stacy Robertson
- British Heart Foundation Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre (BHF GCRC), Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences (ICAMS), University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (H.S.); (J.C.v.K.); (S.R.); (A.R.); (E.D.)
| | - Alexandra Riddell
- British Heart Foundation Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre (BHF GCRC), Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences (ICAMS), University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (H.S.); (J.C.v.K.); (S.R.); (A.R.); (E.D.)
| | - Maria-Christina Zennaro
- Paris-Cardiovascular Research Center (PARCC), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Université de Paris, 75015 Paris, France;
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Service de Génétique, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Eleanor Davies
- British Heart Foundation Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre (BHF GCRC), Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences (ICAMS), University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK; (H.S.); (J.C.v.K.); (S.R.); (A.R.); (E.D.)
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Lu L, Huang J, Deng X, Sun X, Dong J. Application of glucocorticoids in patients with novel coronavirus infection: From bench to bedside. TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND MODERN MEDICINE 2021. [DOI: 10.1142/s257590002030009x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) have potential anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. There is plenty of controversy about the application of glucocorticoids in the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This paper briefly summarizes the mechanism of glucocorticoids and their receptors and clinical applications in COVID-19. Through reviewing the current literature, our aim is to have a deeper understanding of the mechanism of GCs and their clinical applications, so as to find possible ways to enhance their efficacy and reduce drug resistance or side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linwei Lu
- Department of Integrative Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, P. R. China
- Qingpu Chinese Medicine Hospital, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Jianhua Huang
- Department of Integrative Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, P. R. China
- Qingpu Chinese Medicine Hospital, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohong Deng
- Department of Integrative Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, P. R. China
- Qingpu Chinese Medicine Hospital, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Xianjun Sun
- Department of Integrative Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, P. R. China
- Qingpu Chinese Medicine Hospital, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
| | - Jingcheng Dong
- Department of Integrative Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Wulumuqi Road, Shanghai 200040, P. R. China
- Qingpu Chinese Medicine Hospital, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, P. R. China
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12
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Liu G, Jia L, Shao Q, Lu H, Zhao J, Yin J. MicroRNA profiling of Neospora caninum tachyzoites (NC-1) using a high-throughput approach. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:2165-2174. [PMID: 33893549 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07155-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Neospora caninum is an important pathogen commonly causing spontaneous abortion in livestock. The parasite is known to remain in cysts in an inactive state; or it can undergo expansive development within an intermediate host. However, the mechanisms that trigger the proliferation of N. caninum have not been thoroughly elucidated. For various organisms, it has been demonstrated that microRNAs (miRNAs) can act as important endogenous regulatory factors in gene regulation during cell differentiation and development. However, miRNAs and their function have not been studied in N. caninum. In this study, small RNA libraries from N. caninum tachyzoites (NC-1 strain) were analyzed using a high-throughput RNA sequencing technology combined with systematic bioinformatics analysis. A considerable number of novel miRNAs from N. caninum NC-1 strain tachyzoites were identified. Of the 300 miRNAs found by bioinformatics analysis, 10 were conserved miRNAs belonging to 10 metazoan miRNA families, while 290 were novel miRNAs. The expression of 13 novel miRNAs was verified by real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR). Data from this study provided and identified authentic miRNAs for the first time in N. caninum. The study also introduces a framework for further investigations of RNAi-dependent regulatory mechanisms of the parasite and provides data for further understanding of N. caninum development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis/College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Lijun Jia
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, 133002, China
| | - Qingyan Shao
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis/College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Huijun Lu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis/College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Jixue Zhao
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China.
| | - Jigang Yin
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis/College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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Tömböl Z, Turai PI, Decmann Á, Igaz P. MicroRNAs and Adrenocortical Tumors: Where do we Stand on Primary Aldosteronism? Horm Metab Res 2020; 52:394-403. [PMID: 32168526 DOI: 10.1055/a-1116-2366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
MicroRNAs, the endogenous mediators of RNA interference, interact with the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, regulate aldosterone secretion and aldosterone effects. Some novel data show that the expression of some microRNAs is altered in primary aldosteronism, and some of these appear to have pathogenic relevance, as well. Differences in the circulating microRNA expression profiles between the two major forms of primary aldosteronism, unilateral aldosterone-producing adenoma and bilateral adrenal hyperplasia have also been shown. Here, we present a brief synopsis of these findings focusing on the potential relevance of microRNA in primary aldosteronism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsófia Tömböl
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Péter István Turai
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ábel Decmann
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Peter Igaz
- 2nd Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
- MTA-SE Molecular Medicine Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
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Zheng S, He X, Sun J, Li Q, Zhang T, Zhang L. The up-regulated hsa-circRNA9102-5 may be a risk factor for essential hypertension. J Clin Lab Anal 2020; 34:e23339. [PMID: 32445294 PMCID: PMC7439346 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.23339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The present study was aimed to investigate the expression levels of circular RNAs (circRNAs) in the peripheral blood of essential hypertension (EH) patients and healthy controls (HC). On this basis, we tried to explain the possible role of circRNAs in the progression of EH and their potential as diagnostic biomarkers of EH. Methods First, we analyzed the differentially expressed circRNAs in peripheral blood obtained from the finished microarray analysis and selected four circRNAs under strict standards. Then, quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (qRT‐PCR) was performed to measure the expression levels of the selected circRNAs in a total of 192 blood samples, consisting of 96 HC and 96 diagnosed EH patients. Bioinformatics prediction of the target microRNAs (miRNAs) was performed for differentially expressed circRNAs, and the circulating vascular‐related miRNAs were selected for qRT‐PCR analysis to determine their expression levels. Results Hsa‐circRNA9102‐5 (11.7 ± 1.06 vs 12.13 ± 1.11, P = .007) was up‐regulated in the patients group which was diagnosed with EH, as compared to the HC group, and was involved in the regulation of EH by sponging hsa‐miR‐150‐5p. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) of the model was 0.620, using hsa‐circRNA9102‐5 as an independent predictor. Furthermore, the AUC was increased to 0.728 when hsa‐circRNA9102‐5 was combined with hsa‐miR‐150‐5p and multiple other factors, as a combined predictor. Conclusions The present results suggested that hsa‐circRNA9102‐5 may have played a crucial role in the development of EH by sponging hsa‐miR‐150‐5p, which showed great potential as a novel target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuying Zheng
- Department of Preventative Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathological and Physiological Technology, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Xin He
- Department of Preventative Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathological and Physiological Technology, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jihan Sun
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Qiang Li
- Department of Radiology, Yinzhou People's Hospital, Ningbo, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Department of Chronic Disease Control and Prevention, Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Ningbo, China
| | - Lina Zhang
- Department of Preventative Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathological and Physiological Technology, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
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15
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The Role of DNMT and HDACs in the Fetal Programming of Hypertension by Glucocorticoids. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:5751768. [PMID: 32318239 PMCID: PMC7149440 DOI: 10.1155/2020/5751768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The causes of hypertension are complex and involve both genetic and environmental factors. Environment changes during fetal development have been linked to adult diseases including hypertension. Studies show that timed in utero exposure to the synthetic glucocorticoid (GC) dexamethasone (Dex) results in the development of hypertension in adult rats. Evidence suggests that in utero stress can alter patterns of gene expression, possibly a result of alterations in the topology of the genome by epigenetic markers such as DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs). The objective of this study was to determine the effects of epigenetic regulators in the fetal programming and the development of adult hypertension. Specifically, this research examined the effects of the HDAC inhibitor valproic acid (VPA) and the DNMT inhibitor 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (5aza2DC) on blood pressure (BP) and gene expression in prenatal Dex-programmed rats. Data suggest that both VPA and 5aza2DC attenuated the Dex-mediated development of hypertension and restored BP to control levels. Epigenetic DNMT inhibition (DNMTi) or HDAC inhibition (HDACi) also successfully attenuated elevations in the majority of altered catecholamine (CA) enzyme expression, phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) protein, and elevated epinephrine (Epi) levels in males. Although females responded to HDACi similar to males, DNMTi drove increased glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and PNMT expression and elevations in circulating Epi in females despite showing normotensive BP.
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16
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Moar P, Sushmita K, Kateriya S, Tandon R. Transcriptional profiling indicates cAMP-driven reversal of HIV latency in monocytes occurs via transcription factor SP-1. Virology 2020; 542:40-53. [PMID: 32056667 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 01/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Latent HIV reservoir is a major barrier to absolute HIV cure. Studies on latency reversal agents (LRA) have by far focused mainly on CD4+ T-lymphocytes, while myeloid reservoirs remain under-represented despite their persistence and key contribution to HIV pathogenesis. cAMP has been shown to increase HIV-1 transcription in latently-infected monocytes/macrophages. In this communication, we explored the potential of commercially available pharmacological drugs and phosphodiesterase inhibitors to reactivate HIV in latently-infected monocytic cell-line, U1. We showed that increased levels of intracellular cAMP reverse HIV latency in vitro, which is specific to cells of the myeloid lineage. High throughput RNA-seq analysis revealed that cAMP modulates transcriptional profile of latently HIV-infected cells and provides favourable cellular environment for HIV to produce viral proteins. This reactivation of latent HIV was inhibited by Mithramycin A, a selective Sp1 inhibitor, indicating that the reversal of HIV latency in monocytes is driven by transcription factor Sp1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Moar
- Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Kumari Sushmita
- Laboratory of Optobiology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Suneel Kateriya
- Laboratory of Optobiology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Ravi Tandon
- Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.
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Abstract
Abdominal tumors (AT) in children account for approximately 17% of all pediatric solid tumor cases, and frequently exhibit embryonal histological features that differentiate them from adult cancers. Current molecular approaches have greatly improved the understanding of the distinctive pathology of each tumor type and enabled the characterization of novel tumor biomarkers. As seen in abdominal adult tumors, microRNAs (miRNAs) have been increasingly implicated in either the initiation or progression of childhood cancer. Moreover, besides predicting patient prognosis, they represent valuable diagnostic tools that may also assist the surveillance of tumor behavior and treatment response, as well as the identification of the primary metastatic sites. Thus, the present study was undertaken to compile up-to-date information regarding the role of dysregulated miRNAs in the most common histological variants of AT, including neuroblastoma, nephroblastoma, hepatoblastoma, hepatocarcinoma, and adrenal tumors. Additionally, the clinical implications of dysregulated miRNAs as potential diagnostic tools or indicators of prognosis were evaluated.
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18
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Natarajan V, Moar P, Kaur US, Venkatesh V, Kumar A, Chaturvedi R, Himanshu D, Tandon R. Helicobacter pylori Reactivates Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 in Latently Infected Monocytes with Increased Expression of IL-1β and CXCL8. Curr Genomics 2020; 20:556-568. [PMID: 32581644 PMCID: PMC7290055 DOI: 10.2174/1389202921666191226091138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 12/08/2019] [Accepted: 12/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Helicobacter pylori are gram-negative bacteria, which colonize the human stomach. More than 50% of the world's population is infected by H. pylori. Based on the high prevalence of H. pylori, it is very likely that HIV and H. pylori infection may coexist. However, the molecular events that occur during HIV-H. pylori co-infection remain unclear. Latent HIV reservoirs are the major obstacle in HIV cure despite effective therapy. Here, we explored the effect of H. pylori stimulation on latently HIV-infected monocytic cell line U1. Methods High throughput RNA-Seq using Illumina platform was performed to analyse the change in transcriptome between unstimulated and H. pylori-stimulated latently HIV-infected U1 cells. Transcriptome analysis identified potential genes and pathways involved in the reversal of HIV latency using bioinformatic tools that were validated by real-time PCR. Results H. pylori stimulation increased the expression of HIV-1 Gag, both at transcription (p<0.001) and protein level. H. pylori stimulation also increased the expression of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, CXCL8 and CXCL10 (p<0.0001). Heat-killed H. pylori retained their ability to induce HIV transcription. RNA-Seq analysis revealed 197 significantly upregulated and 101 significantly downregulated genes in H. pylori-stimulated U1 cells. IL-1β and CXCL8 were found to be significantly upregulated using transcriptome analysis, which was consistent with real-time PCR data. Conclusion H. pylori reactivate HIV-1 in latently infected monocytes with the upregulation of IL-1β and CXCL8, which are prominent cytokines involved in the majority of inflammatory pathways. Our results warrant future in vivo studies elucidating the effect of H. pylori in HIV latency and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidhya Natarajan
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
| | - Preeti Moar
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
| | - Urvinder S Kaur
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
| | - Vimala Venkatesh
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
| | - Abhishek Kumar
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
| | - Rupesh Chaturvedi
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
| | - D Himanshu
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
| | - Ravi Tandon
- 1Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 2Department of Microbiology, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India; 3Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology Park, Bangaluru, 560066, India; 4Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal576104, Karnataka, India; 5Host Pathogen Interaction Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; 6Department of Medicine, King Georges Medical University, Lucknow, India
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Hejazian SM, Zununi Vahed S, Moghaddas Sani H, Nariman-Saleh-Fam Z, Bastami M, Hosseiniyan Khatibi SM, Ardalan M, Samadi N. Steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome: pharmacogenetics and epigenetic points and views. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2020; 13:147-156. [PMID: 31847609 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2020.1702877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Glucocorticoids (GCs) are the first-line therapy for patients with nephrotic syndrome (NS), a common glomerular disease, that cause complete remission in most of the cases. In response to the treatment, NS patients are divided into glucocorticoid-sensitive and -resistant. This variation is due to the differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of GCs in each patient that affect the response to the treatment modality. Since the genetic variations in drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporter proteins significantly impact the pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of the applied medications, this review highlights the basic mechanisms of genetic variations involved in GCs metabolism in drug-resistant NS patients.Areas covered: This review explains the pharmacogenetic variations that influence the profile of GCs responses and their pharmacokinetics in NS patients. Moreover, the epigenetic variations including histone modifications and miRNA gene regulation that have an influence on GCs responses will review. A comprehensive literature search was performed using different keywords to the reviewed topics.Expert opinion: The accumulative data suggest the importance of pharmacogenetic studies to develop personalized therapies and increase the GCs responsiveness in these patients. It is imperative to know that genetic testing does not give absolute answers to all existing questions in steroid resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyede Mina Hejazian
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Hakimeh Moghaddas Sani
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ziba Nariman-Saleh-Fam
- Women's Reproductive Health Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Milad Bastami
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | | | - Nasser Samadi
- Kidney Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Azhar S, Dong D, Shen WJ, Hu Z, Kraemer FB. The role of miRNAs in regulating adrenal and gonadal steroidogenesis. J Mol Endocrinol 2020; 64:R21-R43. [PMID: 31671401 PMCID: PMC7202133 DOI: 10.1530/jme-19-0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
miRNAs are endogenous noncoding single-stranded small RNAs of ~22 nucleotides in length that post-transcriptionally repress the expression of their various target genes. They contribute to the regulation of a variety of physiologic processes including embryonic development, differentiation and proliferation, apoptosis, metabolism, hemostasis and inflammation. In addition, aberrant miRNA expression is implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases including cancer, hepatitis, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases. Steroid hormones regulate virtually every aspect of metabolism, and acute and chronic steroid hormone biosynthesis is primarily regulated by tissue-specific trophic hormones involving transcriptional and translational events. In addition, it is becoming increasingly clear that steroidogenic pathways are also subject to post-transcriptional and post-translational regulations including processes such as phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, protein‒protein interactions and regulation by specific miRNAs, although the latter is in its infancy state. Here, we summarize the recent advances in miRNA-mediated regulation of steroidogenesis with emphasis on adrenal and gonadal steroidogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman Azhar
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Dachuan Dong
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Wen-Jun Shen
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Zhigang Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology and College of Life Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Fredric B Kraemer
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, California, USA
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MicroRNA mediators of early life stress vulnerability to depression and suicidal behavior. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:308-320. [PMID: 31740756 PMCID: PMC6974433 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0597-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Childhood environment can have a profound impact on brain structure and function. Epigenetic mechanisms have been shown to play a critical role in adaptive and maladaptive processes by regulating gene expression without changing the genome. Over the past few years, early life stress (ELS) has been established as a major risk factor for major depression and suicidal behavior along with other psychiatric illnesses in adulthood. In recent years, the emergence of small noncoding RNAs as a mega controller of gene expression has gained attention for their role in various disease processes. Among various noncoding RNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs) are the most studied and well characterized and have emerged as a major regulator of neural plasticity and higher brain functioning. More recently, although limited in number, studies are focusing on how miRNAs can play a role in the maladaptive processes associated with ELS both at adolescent and adult age and whether these processes are critical in developing depression and suicidal behavior. In this review, we critically evaluate how postnatal ELS relates to abnormalities in miRNA expression and functions from both animal and human literature and draw connections from these findings to depression and suicidal behavior later in life.
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Abstract
Endogenous Cushing's syndrome is a chronic disease associated with increased morbidity and mortality if not appropriately treated. Recurrence and/or persistence of hypercortisolemia after surgical treatment, especially for Cushing's disease, are high, and long-term medical treatment is used to decrease cortisol levels and risk of metabolic comorbidities. Medical treatment is also often required while waiting for radiation effects to take place. In some cases, severe or life-threatening hypercortisolism must be urgently and medically treated, via intravenous medications or with combination therapy, before patients can undergo surgery. In the last decade, medical treatment has progressed from a few steroidogenesis inhibitors to three novel drug groups: new inhibitors for steroidogenic enzymes with possibly fewer side effects, pituitary-directed drugs that aim to inhibit the pathophysiological pathways of Cushing's disease, and glucocorticoid receptor antagonists that block cortisol's action. Understanding the pathophysiology of Cushing's syndrome has also led to the identification of potential targets that may decrease adrenocorticotrophic hormone and/or cortisol excess, and/or decrease tumor cell proliferation, and induce senescence or apoptosis. We provide here a review of current and near-future medical options to treat Cushing's syndrome, and discuss updates on clinical trials and the efficacy and safety of novel or in-development drugs, as well as future potential targets.
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De-Ugarte L, Balcells S, Nogues X, Grinberg D, Diez-Perez A, Garcia-Giralt N. Pro-osteoporotic miR-320a impairs osteoblast function and induces oxidative stress. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0208131. [PMID: 30485349 PMCID: PMC6261634 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0208131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of many cellular processes, including the differentiation and activity of osteoblasts, and therefore, of bone turnover. MiR-320a is overexpressed in osteoporotic bone tissue but its role in osteoblast function is unknown. In the present study, functional assays were performed with the aim to elucidate the mechanism of miR-320a action in osteoblastic cells. MiR-320a was either overexpressed or inhibited in human primary osteoblasts (hOB) and gene expression changes were evaluated through microarray analysis. In addition, the effect of miR-320a on cell proliferation, viability, and oxidative stress in hOB was evaluated. Finally, matrix mineralization and alkaline phosphatase activity were assessed in order to evaluate osteoblast functionality. Microarray results showed miR-320a regulation of a number of key osteoblast genes and of genes involved in oxidative stress. Regulation of osteoblast differentiation and ossification appeared as the best significant biological processes (PANTHER P value = 3.74E-05; and P value = 3.06E-04, respectively). The other enriched pathway was that of the cellular response to cadmium and zinc ions, mostly by the overexpression of metallothioneins. In hOBs, overexpression of miR-320a increased cell proliferation and oxidative stress levels whereas mineralization capacity was reduced. In conclusion, overexpression of miR-320a increased stress oxidation levels and was associated with reduced osteoblast differentiation and functionality, which could trigger an osteoporotic phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura De-Ugarte
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
- Indiana Center for Musculoskeletal Health, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Susana Balcells
- Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII, IBUB, IRSJD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Xavier Nogues
- Musculoskeletal Research Group, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), ISCIII, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Daniel Grinberg
- Department of Genetics, Microbiology and Statistics, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII, IBUB, IRSJD, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Adolfo Diez-Perez
- Musculoskeletal Research Group, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), ISCIII, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Natalia Garcia-Giralt
- Musculoskeletal Research Group, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), ISCIII, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
- * E-mail:
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24
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Baquedano MS, Belgorosky A. Human Adrenal Cortex: Epigenetics and Postnatal Functional Zonation. Horm Res Paediatr 2018; 89:331-340. [PMID: 29742513 DOI: 10.1159/000487995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The human adrenal cortex, involved in adaptive responses to stress, fluid homeostasis, and secondary sexual characteristics, arises from a tightly regulated development of a zone and cell type-specific secretory pattern. However, the molecular mechanisms governing adrenal zonation, particularly postnatal zona reticularis development, which produce adrenal androgens in a lifetime-specific manner, remain poorly understood. Epigenetic events, including DNA and histone modifications as well as regulation by noncoding RNAs, are crucial in establishing or maintaining the expression pattern of specific genes and thus contribute to the stability of a specific differentiation state. Emerging evidence points to epigenetics as another regulatory layer that could contribute to establishing the adrenal zone-specific pattern of enzyme expression. Here, we outline the developmental milestones of the human adrenal cortex, focusing on current advances and understanding of epigenetic regulation of postnatal functional zonation. Numerous questions remain to be addressed emphasizing the need for additional investigations to elucidate the role of epigenetics in the human adrenal gland. Ultimately, improved understanding of the epigenetic factors involved in adrenal development and function could lead to novel therapeutic interventions.
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25
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Rider CF, Carlsten C. Air pollution and resistance to inhaled glucocorticoids: Evidence, mechanisms and gaps to fill. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 194:1-21. [PMID: 30138638 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Substantial evidence indicates that cigarette smoke exposure induces resistance to glucocorticoids, the primary maintenance medication in asthma treatment. Modest evidence also suggests that air pollution may reduce the effectiveness of these critical medications. Cigarette smoke, which has clear parallels with air pollution, has been shown to induce glucocorticoid resistance in asthma and it has been speculated that air pollution may have similar effects. However, the literature on an association of air pollution with glucocorticoid resistance is modest to date. In this review, we detail the evidence for, and against, the effects of air pollution on glucocorticoid effectiveness, focusing on results from epidemiology and controlled human exposure studies. Epidemiological studies indicate a correlation between increased air pollution exposure and worse asthma symptoms. But these studies also show a mix of beneficial and harmful effects of glucocorticoids on spirometry and asthma symptoms, perhaps due to confounding influences, or the induction of glucocorticoid resistance. We describe mechanisms that may contribute to reductions in glucocorticoid responsiveness following air pollution exposure, including changes to phosphorylation or oxidation of the glucocorticoid receptor, repression by cytokines, or inflammatory pathways, and epigenetic effects. Possible interactions between air pollution and respiratory infections are also briefly discussed. Finally, we detail a number of therapies that may boost glucocorticoid effectiveness or reverse resistance in the presence of air pollution, and comment on the beneficial effects of engineering controls, such as air filtration and asthma action plans. We also call attention to the benefits of improved clean air policy on asthma. This review highlights numerous gaps in our knowledge of the interactions between air pollution and glucocorticoids to encourage further research in this area with a view to reducing the harm caused to those with airways disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher F Rider
- Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chan-Yeung Centre for Occupational and Environmental Respiratory Disease (COERD), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Chris Carlsten
- Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chan-Yeung Centre for Occupational and Environmental Respiratory Disease (COERD), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Institute for Heart and Lung Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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26
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Clayton SA, Jones SW, Kurowska-Stolarska M, Clark AR. The role of microRNAs in glucocorticoid action. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:1865-1874. [PMID: 29301941 PMCID: PMC5808749 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r117.000366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are steroids with profound anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. Synthetic GCs are widely used for managing chronic inflammatory and autoimmune conditions, as immunosuppressants in transplantation, and as anti-tumor agents in certain hematological cancers. However, prolonged GC exposure can cause adverse effects. A detailed understanding of GCs' mechanisms of action may enable harnessing of their desirable actions while minimizing harmful effects. Here, we review the impact on the GC biology of microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. Emerging evidence indicates that microRNAs modulate GC production by the adrenal glands and the cells' responses to GCs. Furthermore, GCs influence cell proliferation, survival, and function at least in part by regulating microRNA expression. We propose that the beneficial effects of GCs may be enhanced through combination with reagents targeting specific microRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally A Clayton
- From the Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2WB.,the Arthritis Research UK Rheumatoid Arthritis Pathogenesis Centre of Excellence (RACE), Glasgow, Birmingham, and Newcastle Universities, Glasgow G12 8TA, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Simon W Jones
- From the Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2WB.,the Arthritis Research UK Rheumatoid Arthritis Pathogenesis Centre of Excellence (RACE), Glasgow, Birmingham, and Newcastle Universities, Glasgow G12 8TA, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mariola Kurowska-Stolarska
- the Arthritis Research UK Rheumatoid Arthritis Pathogenesis Centre of Excellence (RACE), Glasgow, Birmingham, and Newcastle Universities, Glasgow G12 8TA, Scotland, United Kingdom.,the Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, Scotland, and
| | - Andrew R Clark
- From the Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2WB, .,the Arthritis Research UK Rheumatoid Arthritis Pathogenesis Centre of Excellence (RACE), Glasgow, Birmingham, and Newcastle Universities, Glasgow G12 8TA, Scotland, United Kingdom
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