Dispersive Solid Phase Extraction for the Analysis of Veterinary Drugs Applied to Food Samples: A Review

Preparation of a new composite based on multilayer fullerene with mesoporous carbon nitride and its application in the extraction of tacrolimus and everolimus from plasma prior to LC-MS/MS analysis

The development of new and efficient adsorbents for dispersive solid-phase extraction method, particularly prior to chromatography analysis, is increasing. In particular, this method is recommended for use before biological sample analysis. In this work, a new composite was prepared from mesoporous carbon nitrides and carbon nano-onions and was utilized for the extraction of tacrolimus and everolimus from plasma samples prior to high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. To achieve this aim, first, mesoporous carbon nitrides and carbon nano-onions were synthesized separately and mixed at optimized proportions. Subsequently, a suitable amount of the prepared composite (5 mg) was added to 2 mL of sample solution containing the analytes under vortexing. Next, the extracted analytes were eluted using acetonitrile. The approach was linear within the ranges of 1.0-500 and 0.51-500 ng mL-1 for tacrolimus and everolimus, respectively. Sensitive limits of detection (0.31 and 0.15 ng mL-1 for tacrolimus and everolimus, respectively), acceptable relative standard deviations (intra- and inter-day precisions of ≤5.6% and high extraction recoveries of 71.0% and 83.0% for tacrolimus and everolimus, respectively) were obtained. The results showed that the method can be successfully applied in the simultaneous extraction of the studied analytes from plasma.

Development of a smartphone-integrated microfluidic paper-based optosensing platform coupled with molecular imprinting technique for in-situ determination of histamine in canned tuna

We reported the development of a smartphone-integrated microfluidic paper-based optosensing platform for in-situ detection and quantification of histamine in canned tuna. Molecularly imprinted polymers were synthesized via precipitation polymerization and utilized as dispersive solid phase extraction sorbent to selectively extract histamine from canned tuna. Carbon quantum dots functioning as a fluorescent probe were synthesized and introduced onto the microzones of the microfluidic paper device. This facilitated a noticeable fluorescence color change from dark red to vivid blue upon the addition of histamine. The change in fluorescence on the paper device was converted into specific RGB values using a portable UV light box combined with a smartphone. This assay achieved the limit of detection of 14.04 mg/kg with the linear range from 20 to 100 mg/kg of histamine in canned tuna. The entire molecular imprinting-microfluidic optosensing test could be completed in 45 min including sample preparation.

Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in the Aquatic Environment and Bivalves: The State of the Art

In recent years, contaminants of emerging concern have been reported in several environmental matrices due to advances in analytical methodologies. These anthropogenic micropollutants are detected at residual levels, representing an ecotoxicological threat to aquatic ecosystems. In particular, the pharmacotherapeutic group of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) is one of the most prescribed and used, as well as one of the most frequently detected in the aquatic environment. Bivalves have several benefits as a foodstuff, and also as an environment bioindicator species. Therefore, they are regarded as an ideal tool to assess this issue from both ecotoxicological and food safety perspectives. Thus, the control of these residues in bivalves is extremely important to safeguard environmental health, also ensuring food safety and public health. This paper aims to review NSAIDs in bivalves, observing their consumption, physicochemical characteristics, and mechanisms of action; their environmental occurrence in the aquatic environment and aquatic biota; and their effects on the ecosystem and the existent legal framework. A review of the analytical methodologies for the determination of NSAIDs in bivalves is also presented.

Green hairy basil seed mucilage biosorbent for dispersive solid phase extraction enrichment of tetracyclines in bovine milk samples followed by HPLC analysis

Unmodified hairy basil seed mucilage (Ocimum basilicum L.), with attractive features as structural functionality and adsorption capacity, was employed as a green biosorbent for dispersive solid phase extraction and enrichment of oxytetracycline, tetracycline, and doxycycline before quantitation by HPLC-UV for the first time. Hairy basil crushed seed increased the contacting surface area and was completely dispersed in the sample solution to extract tetracyclines under acidic condition with the assistance of ultrasonic waves. The analytes in the extraction phase were separated on a C18 column under isocratic condition with a mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile and trifluoroacetic acid. Influence of chemical and physical variables on the extraction efficiency of the developed method was investigated and optimized systematically. Under the optimal condition of all experimental parameters, good linear ranges were obtained at 15.0-500 μg L-1 for tetracyclines with determination coefficients more than 0.9994. Limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantitation (LOQs) ranged 5.0-7.0 and 15.0 μg L-1, respectively. Relative standard deviations (RSDs) of the proposed method at 100 and 300 μg L-1 for TCs were less than 13 % and 10 %, respectively with percentage TC recoveries from spiked standard ranging 83.1-109.9 %. This simple, reliable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly method was successfully applied for the analysis of tetracycline residues in milk. The greenness of the proposed method was assessed using the Analytical Eco-Scale and AGREE protocol.

Vortex-assisted dispersive micro-solid-phase extraction using silica-supported Fe2O3-modified khat (Catha edulis) biochar nanocomposite followed by GC-MS for the determination of organochlorine pesticides in juice samples

In this paper, dispersive micro-solid phase extraction technique was developed for the purpose of extracting and preconcentrating organochlorine pesticide residues in juice samples before their separation and quantitative analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A sorbent composed of a silica-supported Fe2O3-modified khat leftover biochar nanocomposite (SiO2-Fe2O3-KLBNC) was implemented in the process. To improve the dispersion of the sorbent in the solution, vortex mixer was employed. Experimental parameters influencing the performance of the method were optimized, and the optimal conditions were established. With these conditions, linear dynamic ranges ranged from 0.003 to 100.0 ng/mL were achieved, with a correlation coefficient (r2) ≥ 0.9981. The limits of detection and quantification, determined by signal-to-noise ratios of 3 and 10, respectively, were found to be in the ranges of 0.001-0.006 ng/mL and 0.003-0.020 ng/mL. Intra- and inter-day precision, values ranging from 0.3-4.8% and 1.7-5.2% were obtained, respectively. The matrix-matched extraction recoveries demonstrated favorable outcomes, falling within the range of 83.4-108.3%. The utilization of khat leftover as an adsorbent in contemporary sample preparation methodologies offers a cost-effective alternative to the currently available, yet expensive, adsorbents. This renders it economically viable, particularly in resource-constrained regions, and is anticipated to witness widespread adoption in the coming future.

Extraction of Covid-19 drug (Favipiravir) from plasma samples by yolk-shell mesoporous silica before HPLC-MS/MS determination

In this work, a simple and inexpensive dispersive solid phase extraction method using SiO2 @MCM-41-Co3O4 yolk shell as a sorbent was developed for the extraction of favipiravir from plasma samples. The sorbent was synthesized with a simple and novel method. Optimization of the extraction procedure was performed using one parameter at a time strategy. For selective measurement of favipiravir in real samples, multiple reaction monitoring mode in high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used. The synthesized sorbent presented a high adsorption capacity for favipiravir due to its mesoporous structure and different interactions. After optimization of effective parameters including the amount of sorbent, pH, and adsorption and desorption times, the analytical parameters of the method were evaluated. The developed method exhibited a wide linear range from 0.50 to 1000 μg/L. The detection limit and quantification limit of the method were 0.15 and 0.50 μg/L, respectively. The relative standard deviation of the method was obtained by using intra- and inter-day tests, and in both cases, it was less than 6.0%. Finally, the method was successfully used to measure favipiravir in plasma samples with relative recoveries in the range of 87-105%.

Impact of propiconazole fungicide on soil microbiome (bacterial and fungal) diversity, functional profile, and associated dehydrogenase activity

Pesticides, protect crops but can harm the environment and human health when used without caution. This study evaluated the impact of propiconazole, a fungicide that acts on fungal cell membranes, on soil microbiome abundance, diversity, and functional profile, as well as soil dehydrogenase activity (DHA). The study conducted microcosm experiments using soil samples treated with propiconazole and employed next-generation sequencing (MiSeq) and chromatographic approaches (GC-MS/MS) to analyze the shift in microbial communities and propiconazole level, respectively. The results showed that propiconazole significantly altered the distribution of microbial communities, with notable changes in the abundance of various bacterial and fungal taxa. Among soil bacterial communities, the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Planctomycetota increased, while that of Acidobacteria decreased after propiconazole treatment. In the fungal communities, propiconazole increased the abundance of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in the treated soil, while that of Mortierellomycota was reduced. Fungicide application further triggered a significant decrease in DHA over time. Analysis of the functional profile of bacterial communities showed that propiconazole significantly affected bacterial cellular and metabolic pathways. The carbon degradation pathway was upregulated, indicating the microbial detoxification of the contaminant in the treated soil. Our findings suggest that propiconazole application has a discernible impact on soil microbial communities, which could have long-term consequences for soil health, quality, and function.

Eco-friendly thermosensitive magnetic-molecularly-imprinted polymer adsorbent in dispersive solid-phase microextraction for gas chromatographic determination of organophosphorus pesticides in fruit samples

A thermosensitive magnetic-molecularly-imprinted polymer (TMMIP) was successfully prepared in an aqueous medium. The TMMIP was applied as an effective adsorbent in dispersive solid-phase microextraction for the selective enrichment of five organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs; diazinon, fenitrothion, fenthion, parathion-ethyl, and ethion) before analysis by gas chromatography. The polymerization was performed using mixed-valence iron hydroxide nanoparticles as the magnetic support, N-isopropyl acrylamide as the thermosensitive monomer, ethion as the template, and methacrylic acid as the functional monomer. The adsorption and desorption mechanisms of OPPs depend on their interactions with the adsorbents and solution temperature. Our methodology provides good linearity (0.50-2000 µgL-1), with a correlation determination of R2 > 0.9980, low limit of detection (0.25-0.50 µgL-1), low limit of quantitation (0.50-1.50 μg L-1), and high precision (%RSD < 7%). The developed method demonstrates excellent applicability for accurately and efficiently determining OPP residuals in fruit and vegetable samples with good recoveries (93-117%).

Development and Characterization of a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer for the Selective Removal of Brilliant Green Textile Dye from River and Textile Industry Effluents

In this paper, we present an alternative technique for the removal of Brilliant Green dye (BG) in aqueous solutions based on the application of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) as a selective adsorbent for BG. The MIP was prepared by bulk radical polymerization using BG as the template; methacrylic acid (MAA) as the functional monomer, selected via computer simulations; ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as cross-linker; and 2,2'-azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) as the radical initiator. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses of the MIP and non-molecularly imprinted polymer (NIP)-used as the control material-showed that the two polymers exhibited similar morphology in terms of shape and size; however, N2 sorption studies showed that the MIP displayed a much higher BET surface (three times bigger) compared to the NIP, which is clearly indicative of the adequate formation of porosity in the former. The data obtained from FTIR analysis indicated the successful formation of imprinted polymer based on the experimental procedure applied. Kinetic adsorption studies revealed that the data fitted quite well with a pseudo-second order kinetic model. The BG adsorption isotherm was effectively described by the Langmuir isotherm model. The proposed MIP exhibited high selectivity toward BG in the presence of other interfering dyes due to the presence of specific recognition sites (IF = 2.53) on its high specific surface area (112 m2/g). The imprinted polymer also displayed a great potential when applied for the selective removal of BG in real river water samples, with recovery ranging from 99 to 101%.

Novel vinylene-based covalent organic framework as a promising adsorbent for the rapid extraction of beta-agonists in meat samples

Beta-agonists are potent bronchodilators approved for the treatment of asthma and tocolysis. However, they have been extensively misused as feed additives in the veterinary field to improve feed efficiency. The concern over their potential hazard to health has come to the fore again. In this study, a novel vinylene-based covalent organic framework (V-COF-1) with a two-dimensional structure was developed. The structure shows good tolerance in a variety of mediums, which can be attributed to the low polarity linkage. The high specific surface area and variable interaction with analytes accelerate the extraction time. Furthermore, the swelling resulting from the formation of hydrogen bonds by the protic solvent intercalation with the triazine group also improves the adsorption efficiency. Finally, due to its great reusability, it is economical material in sample preparation application. The V-COF-1 based μ-dSPE approach was coupled with UHPLC-MS/MS to develop a highly sensitive and selective method. The linearity of the method ranged from 0.05 to 20 ng g^-1 with a correlation coefficient (R²) higher than 0.9958, and the limits of detection and quantification fell in the ranges of 0.01-0.10 ng g^-1 and 0.04-0.32 ng g^-1. The proposed method has been successfully applied to determine beta-agonists in meat samples, and the results indicated good recovery of 82.2-116%. The intra-day and inter-day precision were less than 6.61%, indicating the potential for sustainable application in food analysis.

Research Progress of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Edible Oil-A Review

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been widely used in different types of consumer and industrial applications such as surfactants, household cleaning products, textiles, carpets, cosmetics, firefighting foams, and food packaging because of their good stability and special physicochemical properties of hydrophobicity, oleophobicity, high temperature resistance, etc. Meanwhile, PFASs are considered an emerging organic pollutant due to their persistence and potential toxicity to human health. PFASs occur in edible oil, an important component of the global diet, mainly in three ways: raw material contamination, process contamination, and migration from oil contact materials. Thus, the occurrence of PFAS in edible oils has drawn more and more attention in recent years. In this work, the pertinent literature of the last two decades from the Web of Science database was researched. This review systematically addressed the potential sources, the contamination levels, and the progress of the determination of PFASs in edible oil. It aims to provide a relatively whole profile of PFASs in edible oil, render assistance to minimise human exposure to PFASs, and standardise the detection methods of perfluoroalkyl substances in edible oil.

Polyurethane Foam as a Novel Material for Ochratoxin A Removal in Tea and Herbal Infusions-A Quantitative Approach

A novel solid-phase extraction methodology followed by UHPLC-MS/MS has been developed for Ochratoxin A (OTA) analysis in herbal infusions. For this purpose, a commercial polyurethane foam (PUF) was used as sorbent, and the experimental conditions were fully optimized. The strategy was satisfactory for reducing the matrix effect and allowed for OTA quantification in black tea and herbal infusions, with suitable recoveries and quantitation limits in agreement with those required by the maximum levels allowed by current regulations. The achieved results demonstrated the unprecedented use of polyurethane foam as an effective alternative for OTA retention and quantification in herbal infusions with the advantages of simple preparation, time saving, sustainability, and low cost for routine analysis.

Efficient dispersive solid-phase extraction of methylprednisolone from exhaled breath of COVID-19 patients

In the current study, bismuth ferrite nano-sorbent was synthesized and utilized as a sorbent for the dispersive solid-phase extraction of methylprednisolone from exhaled breath samples. The size and morphology of the nano-sorbent were characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscopy. Following its desorption with acetonitrile, methylprednisolone was quantified by a high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detector. Factors affecting the extraction of methylprednisolone were optimized. Under optimized experimental conditions, a linear relationship between the analytical signals and methylprednisolone concentration was obtained in the range of 0.001-0.2 μg mL^-1 for exhaled breath condensate samples and 0.002-0.4 μg per filter for filter samples. A pre-concentration factor of 6.4-fold, corresponding to an extraction recovery of 96.0%, was achieved. The validated method was applied for the determination of methylprednisolone in real samples taken from the exhaled breath of COVID-19 patients under mechanical ventilation.

Recent Advances in Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Antibiotic Analysis

The abuse and residues of antibiotics have a great impact on the environment and organisms, and their determination has become very important. Due to their low contents, varieties and complex matrices, effective recognition, separation and enrichment are usually required prior to determination. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), a kind of highly selective polymer prepared via molecular imprinting technology (MIT), are used widely in the analytical detection of antibiotics, as adsorbents of solid-phase extraction (SPE) and as recognition elements of sensors. Herein, recent advances in MIPs for antibiotic residue analysis are reviewed. Firstly, several new preparation techniques of MIPs for detecting antibiotics are briefly introduced, including surface imprinting, nanoimprinting, living/controlled radical polymerization, and multi-template imprinting, multi-functional monomer imprinting and dummy template imprinting. Secondly, several SPE modes based on MIPs are summarized, namely packed SPE, magnetic SPE, dispersive SPE, matrix solid-phase dispersive extraction, solid-phase microextraction, stir-bar sorptive extraction and pipette-tip SPE. Thirdly, the basic principles of MIP-based sensors and three sensing modes, including electrochemical sensing, optical sensing and mass sensing, are also outlined. Fourthly, the research progress on molecularly imprinted SPEs (MISPEs) and MIP-based electrochemical/optical/mass sensors for the detection of various antibiotic residues in environmental and food samples since 2018 are comprehensively reviewed, including sulfonamides, quinolones, β-lactams and so on. Finally, the preparation and application prospects of MIPs for detecting antibiotics are outlined.

An Overview of Analytical Methods to Determine Pharmaceutical Active Compounds in Aquatic Organisms

There is increasing scientific evidence that some pharmaceuticals are present in the marine ecosystems at concentrations that may cause adverse effects on the organisms that inhabit them. At present, there is still very little scientific literature on the (bio)accumulation of these compounds in different species, let alone on the relationship between the presence of these compounds and the adverse effects they produce. However, attempts have been made to optimize and validate analytical methods for the determination of residues of pharmaceuticals in marine biota by studying the stages of sample treatment, sample clean-up and subsequent analysis. The proposed bibliographic review includes a summary of the most commonly techniques, and its analytical features, proposed to determine pharmaceutical compounds in aquatic organisms at different levels of the trophic chain in the last 10 years.

Anthocyanins in Different Food Matrices: Recent Updates on Extraction, Purification and Analysis Techniques

Anthocyanins (ANCs), a kind of natural pigments, are widely present in food substrates. Evidence has shown that ANCs can promote health in terms of anti-oxidation, anti-tumor, and anti-inflammation. However, the oxidative stability of ANCs limits accurate quantitation and analysis. Therefore, faster, more accurate, and highly sensitive extraction and determination methods are necessary for understanding the role of ANCs in medicine and food. This review presents an updated overview of pretreatment and detection techniques for ANCs in various food substrates since 2015. Liquid-liquid extraction and various green solvent extraction methods, such as accelerated solvents extraction, deep eutectic solvents extraction, ionic liquids extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction, are commonly used pretreatment methods for extraction and purification of ANCs. Liquid chromatography coupled with different detectors (tandem mass spectrometry and UV detectors) and spectrophotometry methods are some of the determination methods for ANC. This study has updated, compared, and discussed different pretreatment and analysis methods. Moreover, the advanced methods and development prospects in this field are comprehensively summarized, which can provide references for further utilization of ANCs.

Fabrication of Ce-doped DUT-52 as a sorbent for dispersive solid phase extraction of estrogens in human urine samples

A cerium (Ce)-doped metal-organic framework composite (Ce/DUT-52) was prepared by using a solvothermal method and was explored as a sorbent for dispersive solid phase extraction (DSPE) of three estrogens (α-estradiol, estrone, and hexestrol) in human urine samples. After doping with Ce(III), Ce/DUT-52 exhibited more attractive features involving a higher specific surface area (774.7 m² g^-1) and zeta potential (31.4 mV), which made it an efficient adsorbent for the separation and enrichment of estrogens. The factors influencing DSPE efficiency such as the adsorbent amount, extraction time, pH, NaCl concentration, elution solvent and elution volume were investigated in detail. Under the evaluated conditions, Ce/DUT-52 showed good reusability (n = 6, RSDs ≤ 4.8%). Notably, the cofunction of electrostatic interaction, hydrophobic interaction, hydrogen bonding and π-π interaction might play major roles between estrogens and Ce/DUT-52. Finally, coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), a fast and sensitive method was established, which provided low limits of detection (1.5-2.0 ng mL^-1), wide linear ranges (3-500 ng mL^-1) and satisfactory recoveries (79.8-96.1%). The results demonstrated that Ce/DUT-52 had excellent adsorption ability to the targets and the developed method provided an alternative strategy for the determination of trace estrogens or other compounds with similar chemical structures in urine samples.

Dispersive Membrane Microextraction of Substituted Phenols from Honey Samples and a Brief Outlook on Its Sustainability Using Analytical Eco-Scale and Analytical GREEnness Metric Approach

Honey is part and parcel of our daily nutrition, but in recent times it has been reported to be tainted by the presence of polar substituted phenols purported from the use of pesticides, herbicides, antimicrobial agents, etc. Honey's viscous nature and matrix complexity often result in analytical chemists resorting to derivatization for the detection of polar analytes such as substituted phenols. This study aims to overcome the matrix effect without derivatization and offer a more sustainable solution with notable sensitivity and selectivity using dispersive membrane microextraction alongside high-performance liquid chromatography (DMME-HPLC) with sporopollenin-methylimidazolium-based mixed matrix membrane (Sp-MIM-MMM). The DMME-HPLC approach successfully determined the presence of mono- and disubstituted phenols from unspiked honey samples with concentrations ranging from 7.8 to 154.7 ng/mL. The sustainability of the proposed method was also validated using the Analytical Eco-Scale (AES) and the Analytical GREEnness Metric (AGREE) where an excellent score of 94 and the encouraging score of 0.72 were recorded, respectively.

A Fast Method for the Simultaneous Analysis of 26 Beta-Agonists in Swine Muscle with a Multi-Functional Filter by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A rapid and simplified sample preparation method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 26 beta-agonists in swine muscle using a multi-functional filter (MFF) based on quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe methods (QuEChERS). MFF integrated the cleanup and filter procedures, thereby significantly improving the efficiency of sample preparation compared with traditional solid-phase extraction. The sample was processed via enzymatic hydrolysis, purified with the optimized MFF containing 150 mg magnesium sulfate, 50 mg PSA, and 50 mg C18, and then analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. All procedures can be completed in 6.5 h. Good linearity (R2 > 0.99) was detected in all analytes. The recoveries ranged from 71.2% to 118.6%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of less than 18.37% in all spiked concentrations. The limits of detection (LOD) and the limits of quantitation (LOQ) were 0.01–0.10 and 0.10–0.50 μg/kg, respectively. The decision limit (CCα) and detection capacity (CCβ) values fluctuated in the range of 3.44–25.71 and 6.38–51.21 μg/kg, respectively. This method is a good alternative for detecting beta-agonist residues in swine muscle and can be successfully applied to the national risk monitoring of agro-product quality and safety in China.

Multi-class, multi-residue determination of 132 veterinary drugs in milk by magnetic solid-phase extraction based on magnetic hypercrosslinked polystyrene prior to their determination by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A quantitative multi-class multi-residue analytical method was developed for the determination of veterinary drugs in milk by high-performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A total of 132 veterinary drugs investigated belonged to almost 15 classes including sulfonamides, β-lactams, tetracyclines, quinolones, macrolides, nitrofurans, nitroimidazoles, phenicols, lincosamides, pleuromutilins, macrocyclic lactones, quinoxaline antibiotics, benzimidazoles, anthelmintics, coccidiostats and some others. A magnetic solid-phase extraction procedure was developed using magnetic hypercrosslinked polystyrene (HCP/Fe₃O₄) for the sample preparation prior to HPLC-MS/MS without deproteinization step. The results indicated recoveries of 85-107% for 14 sulfonamides, 85-120% for 13 β-lactams, 89-115% for 4 tetracyclines, 82-119% for 14 quinolones, 82-115% for 8 macrolides, 97-109% for 4 nitrofurans, 84-115% for 10 nitroimidazoles, 89-114% for 3 phenicols, 86-111% for 3 lincosamides, 97-102% for 2 pleuromutilins, 72-88% for 4 macrocyclic lactones, 87-104% for 4 quinoxaline antibiotics, 76-119% for 21 benzimidazoles, 79-115% for 12 anthelmintics, 81-118% for 12 coccidiostats and 75-119 % for 5 unclassified drugs, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of less than 20%, and the LOQs ranged from 0.05 to 1 μg kg^-1. This methodology was then applied to field-collected real milk samples and trace levels of some veterinary drugs were detected.

Application of silanized melamine sponges in matrix purification for rapid multi-residue analysis of veterinary drugs in eggs by UPLC-MS/MS

Fast and convenient matrix purification is an important prerequisite for high-throughput analysis of drug multiresidues in food. In this study, a silanized melamine sponge was prepared and first applied in the rapid determination of multiclass veterinary drugs in eggs by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Within five seconds, fast, convenient and efficient matrix separation could be achieved through simple soaking and squeezing. Compared to other matrix adsorbents, the developed material demonstrated equivalent or better purification performance. Good validation results were obtained in terms of drug recoveries (61.5%~97.0%, relative standard deviation (RSD) ≤ 10.8%), and linearities (R² ≥ 0.999), as well as low limits of quantitation (0.3 ~ 10.9 μg·kg^-1) and detection (0.1 ~ 3.8 μg·kg^-1). By analyzing 52 egg samples, high concentrations of ofloxacin, trimethoprim, metronidazole, and dimetridazole were found at 542.9, 121.2, 66.1 and 58.0 μg·kg^-1, respectively. The silanized melamine sponge has shown its great potential for rapid analysis of multiclass residues in food safety.

Conductive Polymer-Based Nanocomposites as Powerful Sorbents: Design, Preparation and Extraction Applications

Conductive polymers as composite materials have been attracted tremendous attention due to their versatile and excellent features such as tunable conductivity, facile synthesis and fabrication, high chemical and thermal stability etc. These characteristics make them versatile and let them being used in numerous fields including microelectronics, optics and biosensors. Throughout the mentioned fields, conductive polymers particularly perform as effective sorbents. Although tremendous efforts have been put into this topic, to the best of our knowledge, a comprehensive up-to-date review on the applications of conductive polymers as efficient sorbents has not been reported. The main objective of this paper is to make a significant contribution to the recent literature toward the synthesis and extraction applications of conductive polymers as efficient sorbents.

A Review on the Foodomics Based on Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry

Due to the globalization of food production and distribution, the food chain has become increasingly complex, making it more difficult to evaluate unexpected food changes. Therefore, establishing sensitive, robust, and cost-effective analytical platforms to efficiently extract and analyze the food-chemicals in complex food matrices is essential, however, challenging. LC/MS-based metabolomics is the key to obtain a broad overview of human metabolism and understand novel food science. Various metabolomics approaches (e.g., targeted and/or untargeted) and sample preparation techniques in food analysis have their own advantages and limitations. Selecting an analytical platform that matches the characteristics of the analytes is important for food analysis. This review highlighted the recent trends and applications of metabolomics based on "foodomics" by LC-MS and provides the perspectives and insights into the methodology and various sample preparation techniques in food analysis.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Sample Preparation and Analysis in Beverages: A Review

The monitoring of food contaminants is of interests to both food regulatory bodies and the consumers. This literature review covers polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with regard to their background, sources of exposures, and occurrence in food and environment as well as health hazards. Furthermore, analytical methods focusing on the analysis of PAHs in tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples for the last 16 years are presented. Numerous experimental methods have been developed aiming to obtain better limits of detections (LODs) and percent recoveries as well as to reduce solvent consumption and laborious work. These include information such as the selected PAHs analyzed, food matrix of PAHs, methods of extraction, cleanup procedure, LOD, limits of quantitation (LOQ), and percent recovery. For the analysis of tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples, a majority of the research papers focused on the 16 US Environmental Protection Agency PAHs, while PAH4, PAH8, and methylated PAHs were also of interests. Extraction methods range from the classic Soxhlet extraction and liquid–liquid extraction to newer methods such as QuEChERS, dispersive solid-phase microextraction, and magnetic solid-phase extraction. The cleanup methods involved mainly the use of column chromatography and SPE filled with either silica or Florisil adsorbents. Gas chromatography and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry or fluorescence detectors are the main analytical instruments used. A majority of the selected combined methods used are able to achieve LODs and percent recoveries in the ranges of 0.01–5 ug/kg and 70–110%, respectively, for the analysis of tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples.

Recent application of molecular imprinting technique in food safety

Due to the extensive use of chemical substances such as pesticides, antibiotics and food additives, food safety issues have gradually attracted people's attention. The extensive use of these chemicals seriously damages human health. In order to detect trace chemical residues in food, researchers have to find several simple, economical and effective tools for qualitative and quantitative analysis. As a kind of material that specifically and selectively recognize template molecules from real samples, molecular imprinting technique (MIT) has widely applied in food samples analysis. This article mainly reviews the application of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) in the detection of chemical residues from food in the past five years. Some recent and novel methods for fabrication of MIP are reviewed. Their application of sample pretreatment, sensors, etc. in food analysis is reviewed. The application of molecular imprinting in chromatographic stationary phase is referred. Additionally, the challenges faced by MIP are discussed.

Recent advances in analysis of bisphenols and their derivatives in biological matrices

Biomonitoring is a very useful tool to evaluate human exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), like bisphenols (BPs), which are widely used in the manufacture of plastics. The development of reliable analytical methods is key in the field of public health surveillance to obtain biomonitoring data to determine what BPs are reaching people's bodies. This review discusses recent methods for the quantitative measurement of bisphenols and their derivatives in biological samples like urine, blood, breast milk, saliva, and hair, among others. We also discuss the different procedures commonly used for sample treatment, which includes extraction and clean-up, and instrumental techniques currently used to determine these compounds. Sample preparation techniques continue to play an important role in the analysis of complex matrices, for liquid matrices the most commonly employed is solid-phase extraction, although microextraction techniques are gaining importance in this field, and for solid samples ultrasound-assisted extraction. The main instrumental techniques used are liquid and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Finally, we present data on the main parameters obtained in the validation of the revised methods. This review focuses on various methods developed and applied for trace analysis of bisphenols, their conjugates, halogenated derivatives, and diglycidyl ethers in biological samples to enable the required selectivity and sensitivity. For this purpose, a review is carried out of the most recent relevant publications from 2016 up to present.

Recent developments in sample preparation techniques combined with high-performance liquid chromatography: A critical review

This review article compares and contrasts sample preparation techniques coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and describes applications developed in biomedical, forensics, and environmental/industrial hygiene in the last two decades. The proper sample preparation technique can offer valued data for a targeted application when coupled to HPLC and a suitable detector. Improvements in sample preparation techniques in the last two decades have resulted in efficient extraction, cleanup, and preconcentration in a single step, thus providing a pathway to tackle complex matrix applications. Applications such as biological therapeutics, proteomics, lipidomics, metabolomics, environmental/industrial hygiene, forensics, glycan cleanup, etc., have been significantly enhanced due to improved sample preparation techniques. This review looks at the early sample preparation techniques. Further, it describes eight sample preparation technique coupled to HPLC that has gained prominence in the last two decades. They are (1) solid-phase extraction (SPE), (2) liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), (3) gel permeation chromatography (GPC), (4) Quick Easy Cheap Effective Rugged, Safe (QuEChERS), (5) solid-phase microextraction (SPME), (6) ultrasonic-assisted solvent extraction (UASE), and (7) microwave-assisted solvent extraction (MWASE). SPE, LLE, GPC, QuEChERS, and SPME can be used offline and online with HPLC. UASE and MWASE can be used offline with HPLC but have also been combined with the online automated techniques of SPE, LLE, GPC, or QuEChERS for targeted analysis. Three application areas of biomedical, forensics, and environmental/industrial hygiene are reviewed for the eight sample preparation techniques. Three hundred and twenty references on the eight sample preparation techniques published over the last two decades (2001-2021) are provided. Other older references were included to illustrate the historical development of sample preparation techniques.

Nanoplatform-Integrated Miniaturized Solid-Phase Extraction Techniques: A Critical Review

Preparation of the biological samples is one of the most critical steps in sample analysis. In past decades, the liquid-liquid extraction technique has been used to extract the desired analytes from complex biological matrices. However, solid-phase extraction (SPE) gained popularity due to versatility, simplicity, selectivity, reproducibility, high sample recovery %, solvent economy, and time-saving nature. The superior extraction efficiency of SPE can be attributed to the development of advanced techniques, including the nanosorbents technology. The nanosorbent technology significantly simplified the sample preparation, improved the selectivity, diversified the application, and accelerated the sample analysis. This review critically expands on the to-date advancements reported in SPE with particular regards to the nanosorbent technology.

Evaluation of Dissipation Behavior, Residues, and Dietary Risk Assessment of Fludioxonil in Cherry via QuEChERS Using HPLC-MS/MS Technique

The chemical fungicide fludioxonil is widely used to control post-harvest fungal disease in cherries. This study was implemented to investigate the dissipation behaviours and residues of fludioxonil on cherries. A reliable and efficient analytical method was established. Cherry samples from four product areas were analyzed by QuEChERS and HPLC-MS/MS methods with acceptable linearity (R² > 0.99), accuracy (recoveries of 81–94%), and precision (relative standard deviation of 2.5–11.9%). The limits of quantification (LOQs) and limits of detection (LODs) of cherries were 0.01 mg/kg and 0.005 mg/kg. The dissipation of fludioxonil on cherries followed first order kinetics with half-lives of 33.7–44.7 days. The terminal residues of fludioxonil were all lower than 5.00 mg/kg, which is the MRL recommended by the European Commission. According to Chinese dietary patterns and terminal residue distributions, the risk quotient (RQs) of fludioxonil was 0.61%, revealing that the evaluated cherries exhibited an acceptably low dietary risk to consumers.

Collaborative compounding of metal-organic frameworks for dispersive solid-phase extraction HPLC-MS/MS determination of tetracyclines in honey

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), a sort of dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE) material, has shown considerable prospects in the pretreatment of food, biological and other complex samples. Herein, we developed a method for compounding MOFs for d-SPE and trace determination of tetracyclines (TCs) in honey. When the compounding ratio of MIL-101 (Cr), MIL-100 (Fe) and MIL-53 (Al) was 7:1:2, adsorption-extraction was effective. Followed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS), the limits of detection were 0.073-0.435 ng/g and the limits of quantitation ranged from 0.239 to 1.449 ng/g for oxytetracycline, tetracycline, chlortetracycline and doxycycline. The method was applied to four kinds of honey samples with recoveries from 88.1% to 126.2%. The compounding of MOFs provides a strategy for purification and multi-target extraction from complex food matrices by d-SPE.

Determination of the Novel Insecticide Flupyradifurone and Its Two Metabolites in Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicines Using Modified QuEChERS and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

In this study, an analytical method for the simultaneous determination of the novel insecticide flupyradifurone and its two metabolites in a variety of traditional Chinese herbal medicines was developed for the first time using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. A simple and efficient method using dispersive solid-phase extraction was employed for the pretreatment of the samples. Several extractions and cleanup strategies were evaluated. The recoveries (n = 15) of flupyradifurone and its metabolites at three spiking levels were in the range 71.3%-101.7%, with corresponding intraday and interday relative standard deviations of 1.1%-14.8%. The limits of quantitation were 0.01 mg/kg for flupyradifurone and 0.1 mg/kg for its two metabolites. Overall, our developed method was sensitive and reliable for the fast screening of flupyradifurone and its two metabolites in traditional Chinese herbal medicine samples.

Determination of antibiotics in meat samples using analytical methodologies: A review

Antibiotics are widely used to prevent or treat some diseases in human and veterinary medicine and also as animal growth promoters. The presence of these compounds in foods derived from food-producing animals can be a risk for human health. Consequently, regulatory agencies have set maximum residue limits for antibiotics in food samples. Therefore, the development of novel methodologies for its determination in food samples is required. Specifically, the analysis and quantification of these substances in meat tissues is a challenge for the analytical chemistry research community. This is due to the complexity of the matrix and the low detection limits required by the regulatory agencies. In this sense, a comprehensive review on the development of new sample preparation treatments involving extraction, cleanup, and enrichment steps of antibiotics in meat samples in combination with sensitive and sophisticated determination techniques that have been carry out in the last years is necessary. Therefore, the aim of this work is to summarize the published methodologies for the determination of antibiotics from 2016 until the beginning of the second semester of 2020. The first part of this review includes an introduction about antibiotic families, followed by sample preparation and determination techniques applied to the different families. Finally, a detailed discussion of the current trends and the future possible perspectives in this field are also included.

A new sample treatment strategy based on simultaneous supramolecular solvent and dispersive solid-phase extraction for the determination of ionophore coccidiostats in all legislated foodstuffs

A single-step sample treatment, for the simultaneous extraction and clean-up for the determination of ionophore coccidiostats in EU legislated foodstuffs, is here proposed. The treatment is based on the combination of: (i) a supramolecular solvent with restricted access properties (SUPRAS-RAM), spontaneously formed by the addition of hexanol, water and THF to the sample; and (ii) dispersive solid phase extraction (dSPE). The SUPRAS-RAM extract was directly compatible with LC-MS/MS and no further re-extraction, evaporation or cleanup procedures were necessary. SUPRAS-RAM efficiently extracted the ionophores (recoveries in milk, eggs, fat, liver, kidney, and chicken and beef muscle were in the range 71-112%) and removed proteins and carbohydrates, whereas dSPE removed fats and other lipophilic compounds. The method was validated following the European Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. Detection limits (0.004-0.07 µg kg^-1) were far below the maximum residue limits (1-150 µg kg^-1). Method analytical and operational characteristics were suitable for routine determination of ionophores.

Reduced graphene oxide-zinc oxide nanocomposite as dispersive solid-phase extraction sorbent for simultaneous enrichment and purification of multiple mycotoxins in Coptidis rhizoma (Huanglian) and analysis by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

In the current study, a robust dispersive solid-phase extraction (dSPE) strategy using reduced graphene oxide-zinc oxide (rGO-ZnO) nanocomposite as the sorbent was proposed for separation, purification and enrichment of 12 mycotoxins in Coptidis rhizoma (Huanglian). The targeted mycotoxins included aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin G2, aflatoxin M1, alternariol-methylether, mycophenolic acid, ochratoxin A, penitrem A, nivalenol, zearalenone and zearalanone. The rGO-ZnO nanocomposite was successfully synthesized through hydrothermal process by a modified Hummers method, and further characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), FTIR spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Several key parameters affecting the performance of the dSPE approach were extensively investigated, and after optimization, acetonitrile/water/formic acid (80/19/1, v/v/v) as the extraction solution, 2% acetonitrile as the adsorption solution, 15 mg rGO-ZnO as the sorbent, n-hexane as the washing solution, and methanol/formic acid (99/1, v/v) as the desorption solution presented an excellent purification and enrichment efficiency. Under the optimal dSPE procedure followed by analysis with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), adequate linearity (R2 ≥ 0.991), high sensitivity (limit of quantification in the range of 0.09-0.41 µg kg-1), acceptable recovery (70.3-105.7%) and satisfactory precision (RSD 1.4-15.0%) were obtained. The analysis of 12 selected mycotoxins was also carried out in real Coptidis rhizoma (Huanglian) samples for applicability evaluation of the established method.

Multi-class analysis of veterinary drugs in eggs using dispersive-solid phase extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A multi-residue method has been developed for the identification and quantification of 78 compounds from seven different classes of veterinary drugs in eggs. This method was based on dispersive solid phase extraction where mixed-mode cation exchange sorbent was used to combine the isolation of compounds and sample purification. The analysis was performed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and the chromatographic run time of one injection was 9.5 min. The mean recovery ranged from 70.5% to 119.2% and inter-day relative standard deviation was less than 17.0%. The limit of quantification ranged between 0.1 and 1 μg/kg, which was sufficient to support surveillance monitoring. Lastly, the method was successfully used to detect residues of veterinary drug in real samples. The dietary exposure risk was subsequently assessed using the results of the survey, indicating that the evaluated daily intake and percentage of acceptable daily intake were at toxicologically acceptable levels.

Sample treatment based on molecularly imprinted polymers for the analysis of veterinary drugs in food samples: a review

The use of veterinary drugs in medical treatments and in the livestock industry is a recurrent practice. When applied in subtherapeutic doses over prolonged times, they can also act as growth promoters. However, residues of these substances in foods present a risk to human health. Their analysis is thus important and can help guarantee consumer safety. The critical point in each analytical technique is the sample treatment and the analytical matrix complexity. The present manuscript summarizes the development, type of synthesis, characterization, and application of molecularly imprinted polymers in the separation, identification, and quantification techniques for the determination of veterinary drug residues in food samples in extraction, clean-up, isolation, and pre-concentration systems. Synthesized sorbents with specific recognition properties improve the interactions between the analytes and the polymeric sorbents, providing better analysis conditions and advantages in comparison with commercial sorbents in terms of high selectivity, analytical sensitivity, easy performance, and low cost analysis.

Facile dispersive solid-phase extraction based on humic acid for the determination of aflatoxins in various edible oils

Aflatoxins (AFs), as the secondary metabolites of the toxigenic fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, are well known to be extremely harmful to humans and animals because of their high toxicity, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and teratogenicity. Recurring and increasing studies on AF ingestion incidents indicate that AF contamination is a serious food safety issue worldwide. Currently, immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) has become the most conventional sample clean-up method for determining AFs in foodstuffs. However, the IAC method may be limited to some laboratories because it requires the use of expensive disposable cartridges and the IA procedure is time-consuming. Herein, to achieve the cost-effective determination of AFs in edible oils, we developed a dispersive solid-phase extraction (DSPE) clean-up method based on humic acids (HAs), which is followed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. HAs could be directly used as a DSPE sorbent after simple treatment without any chemical modification. In the HA-DSPE, AFs could remain on the HA sorbent by both hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, whereas the oil matrix was retained on HA via only hydrophobic interactions. The oil matrix could be sufficiently washed off by n-hexane, whereas the AFs could still be retained on HA; thus, the selective extraction of AFs and clean-up of oil matrices were achieved. Under the optimal conditions of HA-DSPE, satisfactory recoveries ranging from 81.3% to 106.2% for four AFs (B1, B2, G1, and G2) were achieved in various oil matrices i.e. blended oil, mixed olive oil, tea oil, sunflower seed oil, rapeseed oil, sesame oil, soybean oil, rice oil, corn oil, and peanut oil. Minor matrix effects ranging from 89.3% to 112.9% were obtained for the four AFs, which were acceptable. Moreover, the LODs of AFs between 0.063 and 0.102 μg kg-1 completely meet the regulatory levels fixed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Union (EU), China, or other countries. The proposed methodology was further validated using a naturally contaminated peanut oil, and the results indicated that the accuracy of the HA-DSPE could match the accuracy of the referenced IAC. In addition, HA-DSPE can be used to directly treat diluted edible oil without liquid-liquid extraction and HA is cheap and can be easily obtained from the market worldwide; these advantages make the proposed methodology simple, low-cost, and accessible for the determination of AFs in edible oils.

Recent Advances in the Extraction of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Environmental Samples

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) comprise a group of chemical compounds consisting of two or more fused benzene rings. PAHs exhibit hydrophobicity and low water solubility, while some of their members are toxic substances resistant to degradation. Due to their low levels in environmental matrices, a preconcentration step is usually required for their determination. Nowadays, there is a wide variety of sample preparation techniques, including micro-extraction techniques (e.g., solid-phase microextraction and liquid phase microextraction) and miniaturized extraction techniques (e.g., dispersive solid-phase extraction, magnetic solid-phase extraction, stir bar sorptive extraction, fabric phase sorptive extraction etc.). Compared to the conventional sample preparation techniques, these novel techniques show some benefits, including reduced organic solvent consumption, while they are time and cost efficient. A plethora of adsorbents, such as metal-organic frameworks, carbon-based materials and molecularly imprinted polymers, have been successfully coupled with a wide variety of extraction techniques. This review focuses on the recent advances in the extraction techniques of PAHs from environmental matrices, utilizing novel sample preparation approaches and adsorbents.

Colorimetric determination of amaranth followed enrichment and separation using buoyant adsorbents

A buoyant solid-phase extraction adsorbent was prepared by sodium alginate-coated hollow glass microspheres (HGMs) modified with 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (3-APTS) for the separation and enrichment of anionic dye amaranth. After adsorbing amaranth, these low-density adsorbents can float on the surface of the solution, so the separation between adsorbents and substrates can be carried out by flotation. Quantitative determination of amaranth after separation and enrichment can be achieved by combining spectrophotometry. Under the optimum conditions, the linear range and detection limit for amaranth detection were 0.02 mg L−1–2.0 mg L−1 and 0.0021 mg L−1, respectively. The proposed method was applied to the determination of amaranth in different beverages, and the results were in good agreement with those by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The recoveries of amaranth in different beverages were between 97.93 and 105.91%. The floating adsorbent can be used as a conventional sample preparation method for the detection of low concentration analytes in complex samples.

Parallel sample processing using dispersive INtip micro-purification on programmable multichannel pipettes

Automation gives researchers the ability to process and screen orders of magnitude higher numbers of samples than manual experimentation. Current biomacromolecule separation methodologies suffer from necessary manual intervention, making their translation to high-throughput automation difficult. Herein, we present the first characterization of biomacromolecule affinity purification via dispersive solid-phase extraction in a pipette tip (INtip). We use commercially available resin and compare efficiency with batch and spin column methodologies. Moreover, we measure the kinetics of binding and evaluate resin binding capacities. INtip technology is effective on, and scalable for, an automated platform (INTEGRA ASSIST). The results suggest that high-throughput biomolecular workflows will benefit from the integration of INtip separations.