Emodin, Physcion, and Crude Extract of Rhamnus sphaerosperma var. pubescens Induce Mixed Cell Death, Increase in Oxidative Stress, DNA Damage, and Inhibition of AKT in Cervical and Oral Squamous Carcinoma Cell Lines

Potential Application of Self-Assembled Peptides and Proteins in Breast Cancer and Cervical Cancer

Ongoing research is gradually broadening the idea of cancer treatment, with attention being focused on nanoparticles to improve the stability, therapeutic efficacy, targeting, and other important metrics of conventional drugs and traditional drug delivery methods. Studies have demonstrated that drug delivery carriers based on biomaterials (e.g., protein nanoparticles and lipids) and inorganic materials (e.g., metal nanoparticles) have potential anticancer effects. Among these carriers, self-assembled proteins and peptides, which are highly biocompatible and easy to standardize and produce, are strong candidates for the preparation of anticancer drugs. Breast cancer (BC) and cervical cancer (CC) are two of the most common and deadly cancers in women. These cancers not only threaten lives globally but also put a heavy burden on the healthcare system. Despite advances in medical care, the incidence of these two cancers, particularly CC, which is almost entirely preventable, continues to rise, and the mortality rate remains steady. Therefore, there is still a need for in-depth research on these two cancers to develop more targeted, efficacious, and safe therapies. This paper reviews the types of self-assembling proteins and peptides (e.g., ferritin, albumin, and virus-like particles) and natural products (e.g., soy and paclitaxel) commonly used in the treatment of BC and CC and describes the types of drugs that can be delivered using self-assembling proteins and peptides as carriers (e.g., siRNAs, DNA, plasmids, and mRNAs). The mechanisms (including self-assembly) by which the natural products act on CC and BC are discussed. The mechanism of action of natural products on CC and BC and the mechanism of action of self-assembled proteins and peptides have many similarities (e.g., NF-KB and Wnt). Thus, natural products using self-assembled proteins and peptides as carriers show potential for the treatment of BC and CC.

Preparation, Characterization, and Evaluation of Physcion Nanoparticles for Enhanced Oral Bioavailability: An Attempt to Improve Its Antioxidant and Anticancer Potential

This study aims to enhance the dissolution rate of a poorly water-soluble drug physcion by producing its nanoparticles (NPs) using an antisolvent precipitation with a syringe pump (APSP) method and to assess its antioxidant and cytotoxic potential. The NPs were prepared using a simple and cost-effective APSP method and subsequently characterized by different analytical techniques including dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD). They were also subjected to solubility and dissolution studies, and different parameters such as dissolution efficiency (DE), mean dissolution time (MDT), and difference (f1) and similarity factors (f2) were determined. Furthermore, physcion and its NPs were investigated for antioxidant and cytotoxic effects using various in vitro assays. SEM and DLS analysis indicated that the average size of physcion NPs was 110 and 195 ± 5.6 nm, respectively. The average ζ-potential and polydispersibility index (PDI) of the prepared NPs were -22.5 mV and 0.18, respectively, showing excellent dispersibility. XRD confirmed the amorphous nature of physcion NPs. The solubility and dissolution rates of NPs were significantly higher than those of the original powder. The antioxidant potential studied by the (DPPH), FRAP, and H2O2 assays was greater for physcion NPs than that for the raw powder. The IC50 values of physcion NPs against the aforementioned models were 57.56, 22.30, and 22.68 μg/mL, respectively. Likewise, the cytotoxic potential investigated through the MTT assay showed that physcion NPs were more cytotoxic to cancer cell lines A549 (IC50 4.12 μg/mL), HepG2 (IC50 2.84 μg/mL), and MDA-MB-231 (IC50 2.97 μg/mL), while it had less effect on HPAEpiC (IC50 8.68 μg/mL) and HRPTEpiC (IC50 10.71 μg/mL) normal human epithelial cells. These findings have proved that the APSP method successfully produced physcion NPs with enhanced solubility, dissolution rate, and antioxidant and cytotoxic activities.

Anticancer action of naturally occurring emodin for the controlling of cervical cancer

One of the major causes of death on the globe is cancer. The fourth most frequent malignancy in women worldwide is cervical cancer. Several cancer patients are remaining incurable due to the emergence of medication resistance, despite notable advances in cancer research over the previous few decades. The importance of natural sources as possible therapeutic candidates may be significant. Anthraquinones are one of the many chemical families of natural products, and they stand out for their wide range of structural variations, notable biological activity, and low toxicity. A natural substance called emodin, an anthraquinone derivative, is present in the roots and rhizomes of several plants. This substance has demonstrated antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic, and antiproliferative properties. It is also capable of preventing cancer spread and can reverse cancer cells' multidrug resistance. Emodin, a broad-spectrum inhibitor of cancer cells, have anticancer properties in many different types of biological pathways. These molecular mechanisms in cancer cells include the suppression of cell growth and proliferation, deterioration of the cell cycle arrest, the start of apoptosis, antimetastasis, and antiangiogenic impact. Therefore, the aim of the present review summarised the antiproliferative and anticarcinogenic qualities of cervical cancer of emodin.

Paiteling induces apoptosis of cervical cancer cells by down-regulation of the E6/E7-Pi3k/Akt pathway: A network pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is considered to be the main pathogen causing intraepithelial neoplasia. Paiteling (PTL) has been used to treat intraepithelial neoplasia caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection for more than 20 years in China, but its specific mechanism of action is not very clear, and further research is still needed.

OBJECTIVE

This study designed a comprehensive strategy to study the pharmacological mechanism of paiteling in regulating cervical cancer cell apoptosis by integrating LC-MS/MS, network pharmacology and pharmacological experiments.

METHODS

We used liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to detect the active substances in PTL and performed protein-protein interaction analysis on the intersection of the targets of these key compounds and the targets of intraepithelial neoplasia. Additionally, by using Gene Ontology and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), the potential pathway of PTL against HPV-induced intraepithelial neoplasia was predicted. Finally, we used HeLa and Ect1/E6E7 cells for experimental verification.

RESULTS

The protein-protein interaction network predicted that AKT1, TP53, MYC, STAT3, MTOR, and MAPK were pivotal targets for PTL to inhibit epithelial neoplasia. KEGG enrichment analysis showed that the Pi3k/Akt pathway and HPV infection had scientific significance. Compared to the control group, after PTL diluent stimulated HeLa and Ect1/E6E7 cells for 24 h, cell viability, migration, and invasion capabilities were significantly reduced, and cell apoptosis was significantly increased, conforming to a dose-effect relationship and time-effect relationship. PCR, cellular immunohistochemistry, and western blot experiments showed that PTL reduced the expression of E6, Pi3k, E7, Akt, Bcl-xl, while increasing the expression of Bad in HeLa and Ect1/E6E7 cells.

CONCLUSION

PTL can induce cervical cancer cell apoptosis by inhibiting the E6/E7-Pi3k/Akt signaling pathway. It may provide an effective alternative strategy of traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of epithelial neoplasia caused by HPV infection.

A comprehensive review of emodin in fibrosis treatment

Emodin is the main pharmacodynamic components of rhubarb, with significant pharmacological effects and clinical efficacy.Emodin has a variety of therapy effects, such as anti-cancer, anti-fibrosis effects, and is widely used to treat encephalitis, diabetic cataract and organ fibrosis. Several studies have shown that emodin has a good treatment effect on organ fibrosis, but the mechanism is complex. Moreover, the evidence of some studies is conflicting and confusing. This paper reviewed the mechanism, pharmacokinetics and toxicology of emodin in fibrosis treatment, and briefly discussed relevant cutting-edge new formulations to improve the efficacy, the result can provide some reference for future study.

Therapeutic Effects of Natural Products on Cervical Cancer: Based on Inflammatory Pathways

Inflammation is a protective response of the body to an irritant. When an inflammatory response occurs, immune cells are recruited to the injury, eliminating the irritation. The excessive inflammatory response can cause harm to the organism. Inflammation has been found to contribute to cervical cancer if there is a problem with the regulation of inflammatory response. Cervical cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors globally, and the incidence tends to be younger. The harm of cervical cancer cannot be ignored. The standard treatments for cervical cancer include surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, the prognosis for this treatment is poor, so it is urgent to find a safer and more effective treatment. Natural products are considered excellent candidates for the treatment of cervical cancer. In this review, we first describe the mechanisms by which inflammation induces cervical cancer. Subsequently, we highlight natural products that can treat cervical cancer through inflammatory pathways. We also introduce natural products for the treatment of cervical cancer in clinical trials. Finally, methods to improve the anticancer properties of natural products were added, and the development status of natural products was discussed.

Exploring the journey of emodin as a potential neuroprotective agent: Novel therapeutic insights with molecular mechanism of action

Emodin is an anthraquinone derivative found in the roots and bark of a variety of plants, molds, and lichens. Emodin has been used as a traditional medication for more than 2000 years and is still common in numerous herbal drugs. Emodin is plentiful in the three plant families, including Polygonaceae (Rheum, Rumex, and Polygonum spp.), Fabaceae (Cassia spp.), and Rhamnaceae (Rhamnus, Frangula, and Ventilago spp.). Emerging experimental evidences indicate that emodin confers a wide range of pharmacological activities; special focus was implemented toward neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, cerebral ischemia, anxiety and depression, schizophrenia, chronic hyperglycemic peripheral neuropathy, etc. Numerous preclinical evidences were established in support of the neuroprotection of emodin. However, this review highlighted the role of emodin as a potent neurotherapeutic agent; therefore, its evidence-based functionality on neurological disorders (NDs).

Overexpression of MLF1IP promotes colorectal cancer cell proliferation through BRCA1/AKT/p27 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

MLF1IP has been correlated with the progression and prognosis of a few tumors. However, the role of MLF1IP in colorectal cancer remains unclear. Here, we examined the expression and function of MLF1IP in colorectal cancer and investigated possible molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

MLF1IP expressions in colorectal cancer tissues and cell lines were detected by quantitative real-time PCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. In vitro and in vivo assays were performed to explore the function and underlying molecular mechanisms of MLF1IP in colorectal cancer.

RESULTS

The expression levels of MLF1IP were significantly up-regulated in colorectal cancer tissues and CRC cell lines (P < 0.05). High expression of MLF1IP was significantly associated with TNM stage, T classification, lymph node involvement, distant metastasis, and poor patient survival (all P < 0.05). Overexpressing MLF1IP promoted while silencing MLF1IP inhibited, the proliferation and clonogenicity of colorectal cancer cells and tumorigenicity in NOD/SCID mice (P < 0.05). In addition, we demonstrated that the pro-proliferative effect of MLF1IP on colorectal cancer cells was associated with mediating the G1-to-S phase transition. MLF1IP knockdown enhanced BRCA1 activity concomitantly with p-AKT downregulation and p27 upregulation, while overexpression of MLF1IP has the opposite effect. Moreover, upregulation of BRCA1 can partially abolish the proliferative activity of MLF1IP.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that MLF1IP may promote proliferation and tumorigenicity of colorectal cancer cells via BRCA1/AKT/p27 signaling axis, and thereby provides potential targets for colorectal cancer therapy.

Advances in the study of emodin: an update on pharmacological properties and mechanistic basis

Rhei Radix et Rhizoma, also known as rhubarb or Da Huang, has been widely used as a spice and as traditional herbal medicine for centuries, and is currently marketed in China as the principal herbs in various prescriptions, such as Da-Huang-Zhe-Chong pills and Da-Huang-Qing-Wei pills. Emodin, a major bioactive anthraquinone derivative extracted from rhubarb, represents multiple health benefits in the treatment of a host of diseases, such as immune-inflammatory abnormality, tumor progression, bacterial or viral infections, and metabolic syndrome. Emerging evidence has made great strides in clarifying the multi-targeting therapeutic mechanisms underlying the efficacious therapeutic potential of emodin, including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-fibrosis, anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, and anti-diabetic properties. This comprehensive review aims to provide an updated summary of recent developments on these pharmacological efficacies and molecular mechanisms of emodin, with a focus on the underlying molecular targets and signaling networks. We also reviewed recent attempts to improve the pharmacokinetic properties and biological activities of emodin by structural modification and novel material-based targeted delivery. In conclusion, emodin still has great potential to become promising therapeutic options to immune and inflammation abnormality, organ fibrosis, common malignancy, pathogenic bacteria or virus infections, and endocrine disease or disorder. Scientifically addressing concerns regarding the poor bioavailability and vague molecular targets would significantly contribute to the widespread acceptance of rhubarb not only as a dietary supplement in food flavorings and colorings but also as a health-promoting TCM in the coming years.

Is Emodin with Anticancer Effects Completely Innocent? Two Sides of the Coin

Many anticancer active compounds are known to have the capacity to destroy pathologically proliferating cancer cells in the body, as well as to destroy rapidly proliferating normal cells. Despite remarkable advances in cancer research over the past few decades, the inclusion of natural compounds in researches as potential drug candidates is becoming increasingly important. However, the perception that the natural is reliable is an issue that needs to be clarified. Among the various chemical classes of natural products, anthraquinones have many biological activities and have also been proven to exhibit a unique anticancer activity. Emodin, an anthraquinone derivative, is a natural compound found in the roots and rhizomes of many plants. The anticancer property of emodin, a broad-spectrum inhibitory agent of cancer cells, has been detailed in many biological pathways. In cancer cells, these molecular mechanisms consist of suppressing cell growth and proliferation through the attenuation of oncogenic growth signaling, such as protein kinase B (AKT), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), HER-2 tyrosine kinase, Wnt/-catenin, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). However, it is known that emodin, which shows toxicity to cancer cells, may cause kidney toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity especially at high doses and long-term use. At the same time, studies of emodin, which has poor oral bioavailability, to transform this disadvantage into an advantage with nano-carrier systems reveal that natural compounds are not always directly usable compounds. Consequently, this review aimed to shed light on the anti-proliferative and anti-carcinogenic properties of emodin, as well as its potential toxicities and the advantages of drug delivery systems on bioavailability.

Inhibition of cell-intrinsic NF-κB activity and metastatic abilities of breast cancer by aloe-emodin and emodic-acid isolated from Asphodelus microcarpus

Anthraquinones are a major class of compounds naturally occurring in Asphodelus microcarpus. The pharmacological actions of anthraquinones in cancer cells are known to induce apoptosis or autophagy, and revert multidrug resistance. In this study, five anthraquinone-type analogs were isolated from the methanol extract of A. microcarpus leaves and identified as, emodin, rhein, physcion, aloe-emodin, and emodic acid. Among them, aloe-emodin and emodic-acid strongly inhibited the proliferation, cells-intrinsic NF-κB activity and metastatic ability of breast cancer. Although aloe-emodin inhibited p38 and ERK phosphorylation, emodic-acid more markedly inhibited JNK, in addition to p38 and ERK phosphorylation. Both aloe-emodin and emodic-acid inhibited the secretion of the pro-tumorigenic cytokines IL-1β and IL-6, and VEGF and MMP expression, and subsequently inhibited the invasive and migratory potential of 4T1 cells. Thus, our study demonstrated the effects of aloe-emodin and emodin-acid in controlling the migratory and invasive ability of 4T1 breast cancer cells, in addition to inhibiting NF-κB activity and the expression of its downstream target molecules.

Marine Anthraquinones: Pharmacological and Toxicological Issues

The marine ecosystem, populated by a myriad of animals, plants, and microorganisms, is an inexhaustible reservoir of pharmacologically active molecules. Among the multiple secondary metabolites produced by marine sources, there are anthraquinones and their derivatives. Besides being mainly known to be produced by terrestrial species, even marine organisms and the uncountable kingdom of marine microorganisms biosynthesize anthraquinones. Anthraquinones possess many different biological activities, including a remarkable antitumor activity. However, due to their peculiar chemical structures, anthraquinones are often associated with toxicological issues, even relevant, such as genotoxicity and mutagenicity. The aim of this review is to critically describe the anticancer potential of anthraquinones derived from marine sources and their genotoxic and mutagenic potential. Marine-derived anthraquinones show a promising anticancer potential, although clinical studies are missing. Additionally, an in-depth investigation of their toxicological profile is needed before advocating anthraquinones as a therapeutic armamentarium in the oncological area.

Physcion and Physcion 8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside: Natural Anthraquinones with Potential Anticancer Activities

Nature has provided prodigious reservoirs of pharmacologically active compounds for drug development since times. Physcion and physcion 8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (PG) are bioactive natural anthraquinones which exert anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties with minimum or no adverse effects. Moreover, physcion also exhibits anti-microbial and hepatoprotective properties, while PG is known to have anti-sepsis as well as ameliorative activities against dementia. This review aims to highlight the natural sources and anticancer activities of physcion and PG, along with associated mechanisms of actions. On the basis of the literature, physcion and PG regulate multitudinous cell signaling pathways through the modulation of various regulators of cell cycle, protein kinases, microRNAs, transcriptional factors, and apoptosis linked proteins resulting in the effective killing of cancerous cells in vitro as well as in vivo. Both compounds effectively suppress metastasis, furthermore, physcion acts as an inhibitor of 6PGD and also plays an important role in chemosensitization. This review article suggests that physcion and PG are potent anticancer drug candidates, but further investigations on their mechanism of action and pre-clinical trials are mandatory in order to comprehend the full potential of these natural cancer killers in anticancer remedies.

A Comprehensive Understanding of the Anticancer Mechanisms of FDY2004 Against Cervical Cancer Based on Network Pharmacology

Herbal drugs are continuously being developed and used as effective therapeutics for various cancers, such as cervical cancer (CC); however, their mechanisms of action at a systemic level have not been explored fully. To study such mechanisms, we conducted a network pharmacological investigation of the anti-CC mechanisms of FDY2004, an herbal drug consisting of Moutan Radicis Cortex, Persicae Semen , and Rhei Radix et Rhizoma. We found that FDY2004 inhibited the viability of human CC cells. By performing pharmacokinetic evaluation and network analysis of the phytochemical components of FDY2004, we identified 29 bioactive components and their 116 CC-associated pharmacological targets. Gene ontology enrichment analysis showed that the modulation of cellular functions, such as apoptosis, growth, proliferation, and survival, might be mediated through the FDY2004 targets. The therapeutic targets were also key components of CC-associated oncogenic and tumor-suppressive pathways, including PI3K-Akt, human papillomavirus infection, IL-17, MAPK, TNF, focal adhesion, and viral carcinogenesis pathways. In conclusion, our data present a comprehensive insight for the mechanisms of the anti-CC properties of FDY2004.

Emodin Interferes With AKT1-Mediated DNA Damage and Decreases Resistance of Breast Cancer Cells to Doxorubicin

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a cytotoxic drug used for the treatment of breast cancer (BC). However, the rapid emergence of resistance toward doxorubicin threatens its clinical application, thus the need for combination therapy. Here, we interrogate the role of Emodin, a chemical compound with tumor inhibitory properties, in the resistance of BC to Doxorubicin. We first evaluated the efficacy of Emodin in the treatment of BC cells. We then used γH2A to examine doxorubicin-induced DNA damage in BC cells, with or without Emodin. Data from CCK-8, flow cytometry, and tumor xenograft assays showed that Emodin suppresses the growth of BC cells. Further, we demonstrated that Emodin enhances γH2A levels in BC cells. Moreover, bioinformatics analysis and western blot assays indicated that Emodin down-regulates the AKT1 expression, and marginally decreases the levels of DNA damage proteins (XRCC1, PARP1, and RAD51) as well as increased p53 expression in BC cells. Taken together, our data demonstrates that Emodin affects cell proliferation, and DNA damage pathways in BC cells, thus increasing the sensitivity of BC cells to doxorubicin. Besides, we confirmed that Emodin confers sensitization of BC to doxorubicin through AKT1-mediated DNA.

Therapeutic Potential of Natural Products in Treatment of Cervical Cancer: A Review

Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women worldwide. Though several natural products have been reported regarding their efficacies against cervical cancer, there has been no review article that categorized them according to their anti-cancer mechanisms. In this study, anti-cancerous natural products against cervical cancer were collected using Pubmed (including Medline) and google scholar, published within three years. Their mechanisms were categorized as induction of apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis, inhibition of metastasis, reduction of resistance, and regulation of miRNAs. A total of 64 natural products suppressed cervical cancer. Among them, Penicillium sclerotiorum extracts from Cassia fistula L., ethanol extracts from Bauhinia variegate candida, thymoquinone obtained from Nigella sativa, lipid-soluble extracts of Pinellia pedatisecta Schott., and 1'S-1'-acetoxychavicol extracted from Alpinia conchigera have been shown to have multi-effects against cervical cancer. In conclusion, natural products could be attractive candidates for novel anti-cancer drugs.

Emodin protected against synaptic impairment and oxidative stress induced by fluoride in SH-SY5Y cells by modulating ERK1/2/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway

Excessive fluoride exposure contributes to neurotoxic effects. Emodin exhibits antioxidative functions in the central nervous system (CNS); however, its neuroprotective mechanism against fluoride remains to be elucidated. Our aim was to explore the neuroprotective efficacy and the possible mechanisms of emodin. In our study, synaptic proteins and oxidative stress damage were examined after human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were treated with high doses of NaF for 24 hours. Moreover, pretreatment with emodin was used to shed light on the neuroprotective effects in NaF-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. We found that NaF significantly lowered the protein expressions of SNAP 25, synaptophysin and PSD 95 in SH-SY5Y cells. In addition, NaF exposure increased the protein expression of p-ERK1/2 and decreased the protein expressions of Nrf2 and HO-1, as well as facilitated increasing ROS, 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and 8-Hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). Pretreatment with emodin significantly recovered these alterations caused by NaF. These data implied that the neuroprotective effects of emodin and pointed to the promising utilization for protecting against neurotoxicity induced by fluoride.