1
|
Ma Y, Cao H, Chen B, Xu X, Zhang Q, Chen H, Zhang XB, Song G. Simultaneous In Vivo Imaging of Neutrophil Elastase and Oxidative Stress in Atherosclerotic Plaques Using a Unimolecular Photoacoustic Probe. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024:e202411840. [PMID: 39115358 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202411840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 10/04/2024]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis, a major global health concern with high morbidity and mortality rates, involves complex interactions of chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and proteolytic enzymes. Conventional imaging methods struggle to capture the dynamic biochemical processes in atherosclerotic plaques. Here, we introduce a novel unimolecular photoacoustic probe (UMAPP) designed with specific binding sites for neutrophil elastase (NE) and the redox pair O2⋅-/GSH, enabling real-time monitoring of oxidative stress and activated neutrophils in plaques. UMAPP, comprising a boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) core linked to a hydrophilic NE-cleavable tetrapeptide and dual oxidative stress-responsive catechol moieties, facilitates NE-mediated modulation of photoinduced electron transfer impacting photoacoustic intensity at 685 nm (PA685). Furthermore, oxidation and reduction of catechol groups by O2⋅- and GSH induce reversible, ratiometric changes in the photoacoustic spectrum (PA745/PA685 ratio). Initial UMAPP applications successfully distinguished atherosclerotic and healthy mice, evaluated pneumonia's effect on plaque composition and verified the probe's effectiveness in drug-treatment studies by detecting molecular alterations before visible histopathological changes. The integrated molecular imaging capabilities of UMAPP offer promising advancements in atherosclerosis diagnosis and management, enabling early and accurate identification of vulnerable plaques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Ma
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| | - Hui Cao
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| | - Baode Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| | - Xinyu Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| | - Qingpeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| | - Haoming Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| | - Xiao-Bing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| | - Guosheng Song
- State Key Laboratory for Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, 410082, Changsha, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu Z, Daniels T, Campen MJ, Alvidrez RIM. Inflammatory atherosclerotic plaque identification by SPECT/CT imaging of LFA-1 using [ 111In] In-DANBIRT in a novel dyslipidemic rat model. Ann Nucl Med 2023; 37:635-643. [PMID: 37742306 DOI: 10.1007/s12149-023-01868-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Atherosclerosis is prevalent globally, closely associated with dyslipidemia and other metabolic dysfunction. Early diagnosis of atherosclerosis is challenging due to limited diagnostic capabilities that need to be expanded with animal models with enhanced vascular biology like rats. Our previous research showed [111In] In-DANBIRT has potential as a diagnostic tool for detecting atherosclerosis in mice. The primary aim of the present study is to evaluate [111In] In-DANBIRT in a novel atherosclerotic rat with early- and late-stage atherosclerosis and metabolic disease. METHODS We characterized metabolic and body composition differences in these novel dyslipidemic rats under different diets using serum chemistry and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan, respectively. We performed 1-h post-injection in vivo molecular imaging of ApoE knockout, lean Zucker (LZ) male rats at baseline and followed them into 10 weeks of either normal or high-fat/cholesterol diet implementation (22 weeks of age). RESULTS We identified significant differences in body composition and metabolic changes in ApoE knockout rats compared to ApoE wildtype rats. Our findings indicate an increased uptake of [111In] In-DANBIRT in ApoE knockout, lean Zucker (LZ) rats, particularly in the descending aorta, a location where early-stage atherosclerosis is commonly found. Our findings, however, also revealed that the ApoE knockout, Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) model has high mortality rate, which may be attributed to alterations of critical enzymes involved in regulating metabolism and liver function. CONCLUSION Our results are highly encouraging as they demonstrated the potential of [111In] In-DANBIRT to detect early-stage atherosclerosis in rats that might otherwise go unnoticed by other methods, showcasing the high sensitivity of [111In] In-DANBIRT. Our future studies will aim to establish a viable T2D atherosclerosis model in rats with more advanced stages of the disease to further demonstrate the reliability of [111In] In-DANBIRT as a diagnostic tool for patients in all stages of atherosclerosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zeyu Liu
- Trauma and Transfusion Medicine Research Center, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Tamara Daniels
- Department of Radiopharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
- College of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87106, USA
| | - Matthew J Campen
- College of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
- Clinical and Translational Science Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87106, USA
| | - Roberto Ivan Mota Alvidrez
- Trauma and Transfusion Medicine Research Center, Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
- Department of Radiopharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA.
- College of Pharmacy, Health Sciences Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA.
- Pittsburgh Liver Research Center Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
- Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
- Clinical and Translational Science Center, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA.
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87106, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Van der Heiden K, Barrett HE, Meester EJ, van Gaalen K, Krenning BJ, Beekman FJ, de Blois E, de Swart J, Verhagen HJM, van der Lugt A, Norenberg JP, de Jong M, Bernsen MR, Gijsen FJH. SPECT/CT imaging of inflammation and calcification in human carotid atherosclerosis to identify the plaque at risk of rupture. J Nucl Cardiol 2022; 29:2487-2496. [PMID: 34318395 PMCID: PMC9553768 DOI: 10.1007/s12350-021-02745-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Calcification and inflammation are atherosclerotic plaque compositional biomarkers that have both been linked to stroke risk. The aim of this study was to evaluate their co-existing prevalence in human carotid plaques with respect to plaque phenotype to determine the value of hybrid imaging for the detection of these biomarkers. METHODS Human carotid plaque segments, obtained from endarterectomy, were incubated in [111In]In-DOTA-butylamino-NorBIRT ([111In]In-Danbirt), targeting Leukocyte Function-associated Antigen-1 (LFA-1) on leukocytes. By performing SPECT/CT, both inflammation from DANBIRT uptake and calcification from CT imaging were assessed. Plaque phenotype was classified using histology. RESULTS On a total plaque level, comparable levels of calcification volume existed with different degrees of inflammation and vice versa. On a segment level, an inverse relationship between calcification volume and inflammation was evident in highly calcified segments, which classify as fibrocalcific, stable plaque segments. In contrast, segments with little or no calcification presented with a moderate to high degree of inflammation, often coinciding with the more dangerous fibrous cap atheroma phenotype. CONCLUSION Calcification imaging alone can only accurately identify highly calcified, stable, fibrocalcific plaques. To identify high-risk plaques, with little or no calcification, hybrid imaging of calcification and inflammation could provide diagnostic benefit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Van der Heiden
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - H E Barrett
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - E J Meester
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - K van Gaalen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - B J Krenning
- Department of Cardiology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - F J Beekman
- MiLabs, B.V, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Section Biomedical Imaging, Department Radiation Science & Technology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Centre Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - E de Blois
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J de Swart
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - H J M Verhagen
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - A van der Lugt
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J P Norenberg
- Radiopharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - M de Jong
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M R Bernsen
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Applied Molecular Imaging Erasmus Core Facility, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - F J H Gijsen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Crișan G, Moldovean-Cioroianu NS, Timaru DG, Andrieș G, Căinap C, Chiș V. Radiopharmaceuticals for PET and SPECT Imaging: A Literature Review over the Last Decade. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:5023. [PMID: 35563414 PMCID: PMC9103893 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23095023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) uses radioactive tracers and enables the functional imaging of several metabolic processes, blood flow measurements, regional chemical composition, and/or chemical absorption. Depending on the targeted processes within the living organism, different tracers are used for various medical conditions, such as cancer, particular brain pathologies, cardiac events, and bone lesions, where the most commonly used tracers are radiolabeled with 18F (e.g., [18F]-FDG and NA [18F]). Oxygen-15 isotope is mostly involved in blood flow measurements, whereas a wide array of 11C-based compounds have also been developed for neuronal disorders according to the affected neuroreceptors, prostate cancer, and lung carcinomas. In contrast, the single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) technique uses gamma-emitting radioisotopes and can be used to diagnose strokes, seizures, bone illnesses, and infections by gauging the blood flow and radio distribution within tissues and organs. The radioisotopes typically used in SPECT imaging are iodine-123, technetium-99m, xenon-133, thallium-201, and indium-111. This systematic review article aims to clarify and disseminate the available scientific literature focused on PET/SPECT radiotracers and to provide an overview of the conducted research within the past decade, with an additional focus on the novel radiopharmaceuticals developed for medical imaging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- George Crișan
- Faculty of Physics, Babeş-Bolyai University, Str. M. Kogălniceanu 1, 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (G.C.); (N.S.M.-C.); (D.-G.T.)
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, County Clinical Hospital, Clinicilor 3-5, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | | | - Diana-Gabriela Timaru
- Faculty of Physics, Babeş-Bolyai University, Str. M. Kogălniceanu 1, 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (G.C.); (N.S.M.-C.); (D.-G.T.)
| | - Gabriel Andrieș
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, County Clinical Hospital, Clinicilor 3-5, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Călin Căinap
- The Oncology Institute “Prof. Dr. Ion Chiricuţă”, Republicii 34-36, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Vasile Chiș
- Faculty of Physics, Babeş-Bolyai University, Str. M. Kogălniceanu 1, 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (G.C.); (N.S.M.-C.); (D.-G.T.)
- Institute for Research, Development and Innovation in Applied Natural Sciences, Babeș-Bolyai University, Str. Fântânele 30, 400327 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Meester EJ, de Blois E, Krenning BJ, van der Steen AFW, Norenberg JP, van Gaalen K, Bernsen MR, de Jong M, van der Heiden K. Autoradiographical assessment of inflammation-targeting radioligands for atherosclerosis imaging: potential for plaque phenotype identification. EJNMMI Res 2021; 11:27. [PMID: 33730311 PMCID: PMC7969682 DOI: 10.1186/s13550-021-00772-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Many radioligands have been developed for the visualization of atherosclerosis by targeting inflammation. However, interpretation of in vivo signals is often limited to plaque identification. We evaluated binding of some promising radioligands in an in vitro approach in atherosclerotic plaques with different phenotypes. METHODS Tissue sections of carotid endarterectomy tissue were characterized as early plaque, fibro-calcific plaque, or phenotypically vulnerable plaque. In vitro binding assays for the radioligands [111In]In-DOTATATE; [111In]In-DOTA-JR11; [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor; [111In]In-DANBIRT; and [111In]In-EC0800 were conducted, the expression of the radioligand targets was assessed via immunohistochemistry. Radioligand binding and expression of radioligand targets was investigated and compared. RESULTS In sections characterized as vulnerable plaque, binding was highest for [111In]In-EC0800; followed by [111In]In-DANBIRT; [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor; [111In]In-DOTA-JR11; and [111In]In-DOTATATE (0.064 ± 0.036; 0.052 ± 0.029; 0.011 ± 0.003; 0.0066 ± 0.0021; 0.00064 ± 0.00014 %Added activity/mm2, respectively). Binding of [111In]In-DANBIRT and [111In]In-EC0800 was highest across plaque phenotypes, binding of [111In]In-DOTA-JR11 and [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor differed most between plaque phenotypes. Binding of [111In]In-DOTATATE was the lowest across plaque phenotypes. The areas positive for cells expressing the radioligand's target differed between plaque phenotypes for all targets, with lowest percentage area of expression in early plaque sections and highest in phenotypically vulnerable plaque sections. CONCLUSIONS Radioligands targeting inflammatory cell markers showed different levels of binding in atherosclerotic plaques and among plaque phenotypes. Different radioligands might be used for plaque detection and discerning early from vulnerable plaque. [111In]In-EC0800 and [111In]In-DANBIRT appear most suitable for plaque detection, while [67Ga]Ga-Pentixafor and [111In]In-DOTA-JR11 might be best suited for differentiation between plaque phenotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Meester
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Erik de Blois
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Antonius F W van der Steen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeff P Norenberg
- Radiopharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Kim van Gaalen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Monique R Bernsen
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marion de Jong
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kim van der Heiden
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Thorax Center, Erasmus Medical Center, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Imaging of inflammatory cellular protagonists in human atherosclerosis: a dual-isotope SPECT approach. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2020; 47:2856-2865. [PMID: 32291511 PMCID: PMC7567726 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-020-04776-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Atherosclerotic plaque development and progression signifies a complex inflammatory disease mediated by a multitude of proinflammatory leukocyte subsets. Using single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) coupled with computed tomography (CT), this study tested a new dual-isotope acquisition protocol to assess each radiotracer’s capability to identify plaque phenotype and inflammation levels pertaining to leukocytes expressing leukocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and the leukocyte subset of proinflammatory macrophages expressing somatostatin receptor subtype-2 (SST2). Individual radiotracer uptake was quantified and the presence of corresponding immunohistological cell markers was assessed. Methods Human symptomatic carotid plaque segments were obtained from endarterectomy. Segments were incubated in dual-isotope radiotracers [111In]In-DOTA-butylamino-NorBIRT ([111In]In-Danbirt) and [99mTc]Tc-[N0–14,Asp0,Tyr3]-octreotate ([99mTc]Tc-Demotate 2) before scanning with SPECT/CT. Plaque phenotype was classified as pathological intimal thickening, fibrous cap atheroma or fibrocalcific using histology sections based on distinct morphological characteristics. Plaque segments were subsequently immuno-stained with LFA-1 and SST2 and quantified in terms of positive area fraction and compared against the corresponding SPECT images. Results Focal uptake of co-localising dual-radiotracers identified the heterogeneous distribution of inflamed regions in the plaques which co-localised with positive immuno-stained regions of LFA-1 and SST2. [111In]In-Danbirt and [99mTc]Tc-Demotate 2 uptake demonstrated a significant positive correlation (r = 0.651; p = 0.001). Fibrous cap atheroma plaque phenotype correlated with the highest [111In]In-Danbirt and [99mTc]Tc-Demotate 2 uptake compared with fibrocalcific plaques and pathological intimal thickening phenotypes, in line with the immunohistological analyses. Conclusion A dual-isotope acquisition protocol permits the imaging of multiple leukocyte subsets and the pro-inflammatory macrophages simultaneously in atherosclerotic plaque tissue. [111In]In-Danbirt may have added value for assessing the total inflammation levels in atherosclerotic plaques in addition to classifying plaque phenotype.
Collapse
|
7
|
Heo GS, Sultan D, Liu Y. Current and novel radiopharmaceuticals for imaging cardiovascular inflammation. THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND MOLECULAR IMAGING : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE ITALIAN ASSOCIATION OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE (AIMN) [AND] THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF RADIOPHARMACOLOGY (IAR), [AND] SECTION OF THE SOCIETY OF RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY 2020; 64:4-20. [PMID: 32077667 DOI: 10.23736/s1824-4785.20.03230-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death worldwide despite advances in diagnostic technologies and treatment strategies. The underlying cause of most CVD is atherosclerosis, a chronic disease driven by inflammatory reactions. Atherosclerotic plaque rupture could cause arterial occlusion leading to ischemic tissue injuries such as myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke. Clinically, most imaging modalities are based on anatomy and provide limited information about the on-going molecular activities affecting the vulnerability of atherosclerotic lesion for risk stratification of patients. Thus, the ability to differentiate stable plaques from those that are vulnerable is an unmet clinical need. Of various imaging techniques, the radionuclide-based molecular imaging modalities including positron emission tomography and single-photon emission computerized tomography provide superior ability to noninvasively visualize molecular activities in vivo and may serve as a useful tool in tackling this challenge. Moreover, the well-established translational pathway of radiopharmaceuticals may also facilitate the translation of discoveries from benchtop to clinical investigation in contrast to other imaging modalities to fulfill the goal of precision medicine. The relationship between inflammation occurring within the plaque and its proneness to rupture has been well documented. Therefore, an active effort has been significantly devoted to develop radiopharmaceuticals specifically to measure CVD inflammatory status, and potentially elucidate those plaques which are prone to rupture. In the following review, molecular imaging of inflammatory biomarkers will be briefly discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gyu S Heo
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Deborah Sultan
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yongjian Liu
- Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA -
| |
Collapse
|