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Chen Y, Zheng Y, Johnson S, Wiffen R, Yang B. A comparative study of accuracy in major adaptive filters for motion artifact removal in sleep apnea tests. Med Biol Eng Comput 2024; 62:829-842. [PMID: 38052880 PMCID: PMC10881614 DOI: 10.1007/s11517-023-02979-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Sleep apnea is probably the most common respiratory disorder; respiration and blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) are major concerns in sleep apnea and are also the two main parameters checked by polysomnography (PSG, the gold standard for diagnosing sleep apnea). In this study, we used a simple, non-invasive monitoring system based on photoplethysmography (PPG) to continuously monitor SpO2 and heart rate (HR) for individuals at home. Various breathing experiments were conducted to investigate the relationship between SpO2, HR, and apnea under different conditions, where two techniques (empirical formula and customized formula) for calculating SpO2 and two methods (resting HR and instantaneous HR) for assessing HR were compared. Various adaptive filters were implemented to compare the effectiveness in removing motion artifacts (MAs) during the tests. This study fills the gap in the literature by comparing the performance of different adaptive filters on estimating SpO2 and HR during apnea. The results showed that up-down finger motion introduced more MA than left-right motion, and the errors in SpO2 estimation were increased as the frequency of movement was increased; due to the low sampling frequency features of these tests, the insertion of adaptive filter increased the noise in the data instead of eliminating the MA for SpO2 estimation; the normal least mean squares (NLMS) filter is more effective in removing MA in HR estimation than other filters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongrui Chen
- Department of Physical, Mathematics and Engineering Sciences, University of Chester, Chester, CH1 4BJ, UK
| | - Yurui Zheng
- Department of Physical, Mathematics and Engineering Sciences, University of Chester, Chester, CH1 4BJ, UK
| | - Sam Johnson
- Passion for Life Healthcare (UK) Ltd, Chester, CH1 2NP, UK
| | - Richard Wiffen
- Passion for Life Healthcare (UK) Ltd, Chester, CH1 2NP, UK
| | - Bin Yang
- Department of Physical, Mathematics and Engineering Sciences, University of Chester, Chester, CH1 4BJ, UK.
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Yu JE, Yeo IJ, Han SB, Yun J, Kim B, Yong YJ, Lim YS, Kim TH, Son DJ, Hong JT. Significance of chitinase-3-like protein 1 in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and cancer. Exp Mol Med 2024; 56:1-18. [PMID: 38177294 PMCID: PMC10834487 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-023-01131-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Chitinase-3-like protein 1 (CHI3L1) is a secreted glycoprotein that mediates inflammation, macrophage polarization, apoptosis, and carcinogenesis. The expression of CHI3L1 is strongly upregulated by various inflammatory and immunological diseases, including several cancers, Alzheimer's disease, and atherosclerosis. Several studies have shown that CHI3L1 can be considered as a marker of disease diagnosis, prognosis, disease activity, and severity. In addition, the proinflammatory action of CHI3L1 may be mediated via responses to various proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and interferon-γ. Therefore, CHI3L1 may contribute to a vast array of inflammatory diseases. However, its pathophysiological and pharmacological roles in the development of inflammatory diseases remain unclear. In this article, we review recent findings regarding the roles of CHI3L1 in the development of inflammatory diseases and suggest therapeutic approaches that target CHI3L1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Eun Yu
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, 194-31, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - In Jun Yeo
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, 194-31, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
- College of Pharmacy, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakro, Bukgu, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Bae Han
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, 194-31, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaesuk Yun
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, 194-31, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Bongcheol Kim
- Senelix Co. Ltd., 25, Beobwon-ro 11-gil, Songpa-gu, Seoul, 05836, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Ji Yong
- PRESTI GEBIOLOGICS Co. Ltd., Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28161, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Soo Lim
- PRESTI GEBIOLOGICS Co. Ltd., Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28161, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Hun Kim
- Autotelic Bio Inc., Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Ju Son
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, 194-31, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jin Tae Hong
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, 194-31, Osongsaengmyeong 1-ro, Osong-eup, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk, 28160, Republic of Korea.
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Wang CW, Chuang HC, Tan TH. ACE2 in chronic disease and COVID-19: gene regulation and post-translational modification. J Biomed Sci 2023; 30:71. [PMID: 37608279 PMCID: PMC10464117 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-023-00965-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a counter regulator of the renin-angiotensin system, provides protection against several chronic diseases. Besides chronic diseases, ACE2 is the host receptor for SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-2 virus, mediating the first step of virus infection. ACE2 levels are regulated by transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational regulation or modification. ACE2 transcription is enhanced by transcription factors including Ikaros, HNFs, GATA6, STAT3 or SIRT1, whereas ACE2 transcription is reduced by the transcription factor Brg1-FoxM1 complex or ERRα. ACE2 levels are also regulated by histone modification or miRNA-induced destabilization. The protein kinase AMPK, CK1α, or MAP4K3 phosphorylates ACE2 protein and induces ACE2 protein levels by decreasing its ubiquitination. The ubiquitination of ACE2 is induced by the E3 ubiquitin ligase MDM2 or UBR4 and decreased by the deubiquitinase UCHL1 or USP50. ACE2 protein levels are also increased by the E3 ligase PIAS4-mediated SUMOylation or the methyltransferase PRMT5-mediated ACE2 methylation, whereas ACE2 protein levels are decreased by AP2-mediated lysosomal degradation. ACE2 is downregulated in several human chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, or lung injury. In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 upregulates ACE2 levels, enhancing host cell susceptibility to virus infection. Moreover, soluble ACE2 protein and exosomal ACE2 protein facilitate SARS-CoV-2 infection into host cells. In this review, we summarize the gene regulation and post-translational modification of ACE2 in chronic disease and COVID-19. Understanding the regulation and modification of ACE2 may help to develop prevention or treatment strategies for ACE2-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Wen Wang
- Immunology Research Center, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, 35053 Taiwan
| | - Huai-Chia Chuang
- Immunology Research Center, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, 35053 Taiwan
| | - Tse-Hua Tan
- Immunology Research Center, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, 35053 Taiwan
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Fei Q, Tan Y, Yi M, Zhao W, Zhang Y. Associations between cardiometabolic phenotypes and levels of TNF-α, CRP, and interleukins in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 2022; 27:1033-1042. [DOI: 10.1007/s11325-022-02697-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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Cai J, Lyu X, Huang P, Li S, Chen R, Chen Z, Sun M, Zeng L, Wu F, Hu M. Increased Levels of CHI3L1 and HA Are Associated With Higher Occurrence of Liver Damage in Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:854570. [PMID: 35280860 PMCID: PMC8913888 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.854570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSA) may cause liver fibrosis, and liver fibrosis serum biomarkers plays an important role on the diagnosis of liver fibrosis. In addition, this study aimed to observe the changes of 4 serum markers and Chitinase 3-like protein 1 (CHII3L1) levels in OSA patients with different disease severity and explore their interactions. And then, we examined whether intermittent hypoxia (IH) exposure can activate hepatic stellate cell. Methods 74 OSA patients in Second Xiangya hospital from January 2021 to October 2021 was selected and categorized into mild, moderate, and severe groups according to AHI. In addition, 20 subjects were selected as the control group. Serum levels of liver fibrosis markers were determined by electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Hepatic stellate cells were exposed to intermittent IH or normoxia (RA). Results were analyzed using the SPSS software. Results There was a significant increase in serum hyaluronic acid (HA), collagen type IV (CIV) and CHI3L1 levels in OSA patients compared with control group. Specifically, serum liver fibrosis markers HA, CIV and CHI3L1 levels were positively correlated with apnea-hypopnea index (AHI), but negatively correlated with the lowest saturation oxygen (LSaO2) respectively. The LX-2 cells (human hepatic stellate cell line) exposed to IH showed significant increases in fibrotic protein expression. Conclusion OSA might either directly or indirectly trigger or exacerbate liver fibrosis, possibly via IH-related pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyao Cai
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xing Lyu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Peiying Huang
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Shisheng Li
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ruohong Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhiyang Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Mei Sun
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ling Zeng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Fengxi Wu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Min Hu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Min Hu
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Jin Y, Song J, Xu F, Zhang D, He J, Zheng J, Zhang Y, Li J, Guo Y, Xu M, Yu X, Liu Y, Liu Q, Yan J. Association between YKL-40 and asthma: a systematic meta-analysis. Sleep Breath 2021; 26:1011-1022. [PMID: 34657273 DOI: 10.1007/s11325-021-02495-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Many studies have shown that chitinase-3-like protein 1 (CHI3L1), also known as YKL-40, is associated with asthma. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the role of serum YKL-40 in the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of asthma, severity grading, and determination of disease state. METHODS The PubMed, Ovid, and Cochrane databases were searched. A total of 17 articles involving 5696 subjects were included in this meta-analysis. RESULTS The results showed that the level of YKL-40 was significantly higher in asthmatic patients than in the normal group regardless of age and residential location, and increased with severity and acute exacerbation (p < 0.05). YKL-40 levels were significantly different between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma, and also between asthma-COPD overlap syndrome (ACO) and asthma (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION YKL-40 may act as a potential serological marker for the diagnosis of asthma, assessment of severity, indicator of the disease state, and differential diagnosis of COPD, ACO, and asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihan Jin
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Jie Song
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Fang Xu
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Di Zhang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Jinfang He
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Jiakun Zheng
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Yanan Zhang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Jintong Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Yikun Guo
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Mengjiao Xu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Xiangfeng Yu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Yanbin Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Qinghua Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Jun Yan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Dongzhimen Hospital Affiliated to Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100700, China.
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Imani MM, Sadeghi M, Farokhzadeh F, Khazaie H, Brand S, Dürsteler KM, Brühl A, Sadeghi-Bahmani D. Evaluation of Blood Levels of C-Reactive Protein Marker in Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11040362. [PMID: 33921787 PMCID: PMC8073992 DOI: 10.3390/life11040362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Introduction: High sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) and CRP are inflammatory biomarkers associated with several inflammatory diseases. In both pediatric and adult individuals with Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) higher hs-CRP and CRP were observed, compared to controls. With the present systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression we expand upon previous meta-analyses in four ways: (1) We included 109 studies (96 in adults and 13 in children); (2) we reported subgroup and meta-regression analyses in adults with OSA compared to controls on the serum and plasma levels of hs-CRP; (3) we reported subgroup and meta-regression analyses in adults with OSA compared to controls on the serum and plasma levels of CRP; (4) we reported serum and plasma levels of both hs-CRP and CRP in children with OSA, always compared to controls. (2) Materials and Methods: The PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases were searched to retrieve articles published until 31 May 2020, with no restrictions. The data included basic information involving the first author, publication year, country of study, ethnicity of participants in each study, age, BMI, and AHI of both groups, and mean and standard deviation (SD) of plasma and serum levels of CRP and hs-CRP. (3) Results: A total of 1046 records were retrieved from the databases, and 109 studies were selected for the analysis (96 studies reporting the blood levels of hs-CRP/CRP in adults and 13 studies in children). For adults, 11 studies reported plasma hs-CRP, 44 serum hs-CRP, 9 plasma CRP, and 32 serum CRP levels. For children, 6 studies reported plasma hs-CRP, 4 serum hs-CRP, 1 plasma CRP, and 2 serum CRP levels. Compared to controls, the pooled MD of plasma hs-CRP levels in adults with OSA was 0.11 mg/dL (p < 0.00001). Compared to controls, the pooled MD of serum hs-CRP levels in adults with OSA was 0.09 mg/dL (p < 0.00001). Compared to controls, the pooled MD of plasma CRP levels in adults with OSA was 0.06 mg/dL (p = 0.72). Compared to controls, the pooled MD of serum CRP levels in adults with OSA was 0.36 mg/dL (p < 0.00001). Compared to controls, the pooled MD of plasma hs-CRP, serum hs-CRP, plasma hs-CRP, and serum hs-CRP in children with OSA was 1.17 mg/dL (p = 0.005), 0.18 mg/dL (p = 0.05), 0.08 mg/dL (p = 0.10), and 0.04 mg/dL (p = 0.33), respectively. The meta-regression showed that with a greater apnea-hypapnea index (AHI), serum hs-CRP levels were significantly higher. (4) Conclusions: The results of the present systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression showed that compared to healthy controls plasma and serum levels of hs-CRP and serum CRP level were higher in adults with OSA; for children, and compared to controls, just plasma hs-CRP levels in children with OSA were higher.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Moslem Imani
- Department of Orthodontics, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6715847141, Iran;
| | - Masoud Sadeghi
- Medical Biology Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6715847141, Iran;
| | - Farid Farokhzadeh
- Students Research Committee, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6715847141, Iran;
| | - Habibolah Khazaie
- Sleep Disorders Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6715847141, Iran; (H.K.); (D.S.-B.)
| | - Serge Brand
- Sleep Disorders Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6715847141, Iran; (H.K.); (D.S.-B.)
- Center for Affective, Stress and Sleep Disorders (ZASS), Psychiatric University Hospital Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland;
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, Division of Sport Science and Psychosocial Health, University of Basel, 4052 Basel, Switzerland
- Substance Abuse Prevention Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 67146, Iran
- School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 25529, Iran
- Correspondence:
| | - Kenneth M. Dürsteler
- Psychiatric Clinics, Division of Substance Use Disorders, University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland;
- Center for Addictive Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, 8001 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annette Brühl
- Center for Affective, Stress and Sleep Disorders (ZASS), Psychiatric University Hospital Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland;
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dena Sadeghi-Bahmani
- Sleep Disorders Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6715847141, Iran; (H.K.); (D.S.-B.)
- Center for Affective, Stress and Sleep Disorders (ZASS), Psychiatric University Hospital Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland;
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
- Substance Abuse Prevention Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 67146, Iran
- Departments of Physical Therapy, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35209, USA
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Rana D, Torrilus C, Ahmad W, Okam NA, Fatima T, Jahan N. Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Cardiovascular Morbidities: A Review Article. Cureus 2020; 12:e10424. [PMID: 32953361 PMCID: PMC7494423 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.10424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), there are brief episodes of partial or total upper airway obstruction during sleep, which leads to apnea or hypopneas. Much attention is required to understand OSA's effects on the human body, owing to how common but under-diagnosed this disorder remains. Though the role of OSA in cardiovascular (CV) disease is commonly discussed, it remains unclear how it induces changes in the human body. The intermittent and recurrent hypoxia occurring at the cellular level in this condition is critical for the dramatic changes observed. Vascular endothelial cell (VEC) injury and other mechanisms seen in OSA lead to changes in the CV system. OSA can take a toll on a person's overall functioning, especially with so much importance in today's time on preventing and treating cardiac-related deaths. A total of 31 published articles were included from the PubMed database for our literature review. Most of the studies showed a strong association of OSA with hypertension, especially resistant hypertension. Findings were consistent with OSA's independent role in causing CV diseases, included heart failure, coronary artery disease (cardiac ischemia), arrhythmias, and ischemic stroke. Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) is one of the reliable and beneficial treatments for OSA patients. OSA is a treatable and modifiable risk factor for cardiac events and related deaths. The primary purpose of our review article was to address any existing gaps between OSA and its effect on the human body with particular emphasis on cardiovascular changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyata Rana
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Chenet Torrilus
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Wiqas Ahmad
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Nkechi A Okam
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Tehreem Fatima
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Nusrat Jahan
- Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
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