Occurrence of Fungi and Mycotoxins in Fish Feeds and Their Impact on Fish Health

Effects of Dietary Aflatoxin B1 on Hybrid Grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀ × Epinephelus lanceolatus ♂) Growth, Intestinal Health, and Muscle Quality

This study investigated the effects of varying doses of dietary aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on the growth, intestinal health, and muscle quality of hybrid grouper. Four diets with varying AFB1 concentrations (0, 30, 445, and 2,230 μg kg-1) were used. Elevating AFB1 concentrations led to a decline in growth indexes, specifically the weight gain rate and the specific growth rate, although the survival rate remained unchanged. Morphological indicators showed a dose-dependent decline with AFB1 exposure. Intestinal MDA content and hindgut reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels increased, while antioxidant indexes and digestive enzymes decreased with higher AFB1 levels. AFB1 negatively influenced hindgut tight junction protein and antioxidant-related gene expression while promoting inflammation-related gene expression. The presence of AFB1 in the experiment led to a decrease in beneficial intestinal bacteria, such as Prevotella, and an increase in harmful intestinal bacteria, such as Prevotellaceae_NK3B31_group. Muscle lipid and unsaturated fatty acid content significantly decreased, while muscle protein and liver AFB1 content increased dramatically with higher AFB1 concentrations. AFB1 caused myofibrillar cleavage and myofilament damage, leading to increased spaces between muscle fibers. In conclusion, diets with AFB1 levels exceeding 30 μg kg-1 inhibited hybrid grouper growth, while levels surpassing 445 μg kg-1 resulted in hindgut ROS accumulation, inflammation, elevated intestinal permeability, reduced digestive enzyme activity, and compromised muscle quality.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of aflatoxin B1-mediated neurotoxicity: The therapeutic role of natural bioactive compounds

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a dietary toxin from the mold Aspergillus species, is well acknowledged to elicit extra-hepatic toxicity in both animals and humans. The neurotoxicity of AFB1 has become a global public health concern. Contemporary research on how AFB1 enters the brain to elicit neuronal dysregulation leading to noxious neurological outcomes has increased greatly in recent years. The current review discusses several neurotoxic outcomes and susceptible targets of AFB1 toxicity at cellular, molecular and genetic levels. Specifically, neurotoxicity studies involving the use of brain homogenates, neuroblastoma cell line IMR-32, human brain microvascular endothelial cells, microglial cells, and astrocytes, as well as mammalian and non-mammalian models to unravel the mechanisms associated with AFB1 exposure are highlighted. Further, some naturally occurring bioactive compounds with compelling therapeutic effects on AFB1-induced neurotoxicity are reviewed. In conclusion, available data from literature highlight AFB1 as a neurotoxin and its possible pathological contribution to neurological disorders. Further mechanistic studies aimed at discovering and developing effective therapeutics for AFB1 neurotoxicity is warranted.

Monitoring of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Fish Farm Water and Fumonisins in Feeds for Farmed Colossoma macropomum

This study aimed to evaluate the occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi in fish farm water and mycotoxins in feeds for farmed tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum). A total of 40 samples of freshwater from fish farms and 16 samples of feed were collected and analyzed for microbiology. A total of five species of free-living fungi were identified in fish farms: Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium citrinum, P. implicatum, Fusarium oxysporum and Alternaria alternata. These fungi species were counted in water samples at 35.14 CFU mL-1 and 24.69 CFU mL-1 in the dry seasons. In all fish farms, there was a higher abundance of fungi species in the rainy season. During visits to the fish farmers, it was possible to verify poor feed storage conditions. Concerning mutations in blood cells, in tambaqui (C. macropomum), a total of 159 anomalies were found, and in Leptodactylus petersii, 299 anomalies were found, with higher incidences in conditions above 1.0 CFU mL-1 in log10(x+1) fungi and in the rainy season. The occurrence of mycotoxicological contamination was confirmed in 81.25% of the analyzed samples. The quantified mycotoxin was Fumonisins B1 + B2 (375 to 1418 μg kg-1). Pearson's correlation analysis showed a significant positive correlation between Fumonisins and feed samples (r = 0.83). There was also a significant positive correlation between the abundance of fungi in water and the quantification of Fumonisins (r = 0.79). Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that free-living fungi can be used as bioindicators of water quality in fish farms. Consequently, the lack of good management practices caused microbiological contamination of the aquatic environment.

Aflatoxin B1 damaged structural barrier through Keap1a/Nrf2/ MLCK signaling pathways and immune barrier through NF-κB/ TOR signaling pathways in gill of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

Aquafeeds are susceptible to contamination caused by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The gill of fish is an important respiratory organ. However, few studies have investigated the effects of dietary AFB1 exposure on gill. This study aimed to discuss the effects of AFB1 on the structural and immune barrier of grass carp gill. Dietary AFB1 increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, protein carbonyl (PC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents, which consequently caused oxidative damage. In contrast, dietary AFB1 decreased antioxidant enzymes activities, relative genes expression (except MnSOD) and the contents of glutathione (GSH) (P < 0.05), which are partly regulated by NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2/Keap1a). Moreover, dietary AFB1 caused DNA fragmentation. The relative genes of apoptosis (except Bcl-2, McL-1 and IAP) were significantly upregulated (P < 0.05), and apoptosis was likely upregulated through p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK). The relative expressions of genes associated with tight junction complexes (TJs) (except ZO-1 and claudin-12) were significantly decreased (P < 0.05), and TJs were likely regulated by myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). Overall, dietary AFB1 disrupted the structural barrier of gill. Furthermore, AFB1 increased gill sensitivity to F. columnare, increased Columnaris disease and decreased the production of antimicrobial substances (P < 0.05) in grass carp gill, and upregulated the expression of genes involved with pro-inflammatory factors (except TNF-α and IL-8) and the pro-inflammatory response partly attributed to the regulation by nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Meanwhile, the anti-inflammatory factors were downregulated (P < 0.05) in grass carp gill after challenge with F. columnare, which was partly attributed to the target of rapamycin (TOR). These results suggested that AFB1 aggravated the disruption of the immune barrier of grass carp gill after being challenge with F. columnare. Finally, the upper limit of safety of AFB1 for grass carp, based on Columnaris disease, was 31.10 μg/kg diet.

Mycotoxins in Seafood: Occurrence, Recent Development of Analytical Techniques and Future Challenges

The co-occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in aquatic food commodities has recently become a source of severe worldwide food insecurity since these toxicants may damage human health. The consumption of aquatic food itself represents a relatively novel and non-negligible source of mycotoxins. Mycotoxins in seafood lead to important human genotoxins, carcinogens, and immunosuppressors. Consequently, it is crucial to quantify and characterize these contaminants in aquatic food products subject to extensive consumption and develop new regulations. The present paper provides an overview of recent advancements in liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry and the coupling of these techniques for identifying and characterizing mycotoxins in various fresh, comestible, and treated marine products. The disposable data display that a multiplicity of fungal species and further mycotoxins have been detected in seafood, comprising aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and trichothecenes. In addition, a wider and up-to-date overview of global occurrence surveys of mycotoxin occurrence in seafood in 2017–2022 is explored. In this regard, the predominant occurrence of enniatins has been documented in seafood products. Likewise, special attention has been given to current EU seafood legal and existing national regulations of mycotoxins in seafood. In this way, rigorous national and international guidelines are needed for palpable and effective measures in the future. Nevertheless, controlling mycotoxins in aquatic foods is an ambitious aim for scientists and industry stakeholders to ensure sustainable global food safety.

Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Determination in Fish Feed Ingredients

Low-cost plant-based sources used in aquaculture diets are prone to the occurrence of animal feed contaminants, which may in certain conditions affect the quality and safety of aquafeeds. Mycotoxins, a toxic group of small organic molecules produced by fungi, comprise a frequently occurring plant-based feed contaminant in aquafeeds. Mycotoxin contamination can potentially cause significant mortality, reduced productivity, and higher disease susceptibility; thus, its timely detection is crucial to the aquaculture industry. The present review summarizes the methodological advances, developed mainly during the past decade, related to mycotoxin detection in aquafeed ingredients, namely analytical, chromatographic, and immunological methodologies, as well as the use of biosensors and spectroscopic methods which are becoming more prevalent. Rapid and accurate mycotoxin detection is and will continue to be crucial to the food industry, animal production, and the environment, resulting in further improvements and developments in mycotoxin detection techniques.

Natural Compounds and Products from an Anti-Aging Perspective

Aging is a very complex process that is accompanied by a degenerative impairment in many of the major functions of the human body over time. This inevitable process is influenced by hereditary factors, lifestyle, and environmental influences such as xenobiotic pollution, infectious agents, UV radiation, diet-borne toxins, and so on. Many external and internal signs and symptoms are related with the aging process and senescence, including skin dryness and wrinkles, atherosclerosis, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, etc. Oxidative stress, a consequence of the imbalance between pro- and antioxidants, is one of the main provoking factors causing aging-related damages and concerns, due to the generation of highly reactive byproducts such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species during the metabolism, which result in cellular damage and apoptosis. Antioxidants can prevent these processes and extend healthy longevity due to the ability to inhibit the formation of free radicals or interrupt their propagation, thereby lowering the level of oxidative stress. This review focuses on supporting the antioxidant system of the organism by balancing the diet through the consumption of the necessary amount of natural ingredients, including vitamins, minerals, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), essential amino acids, probiotics, plants’ fibers, nutritional supplements, polyphenols, some phytoextracts, and drinking water.

Dietary Aflatoxin B1 attenuates immune function of immune organs in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) by modulating NF-κB and the TOR signaling pathway

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is kind of a common mycotoxin in food and feedstuff. Aquafeeds are susceptible to contamination of AFB1. In teleost fish, the spleen and head kidney are key immune organ. Moreover, the fish skin is a critical mucosal barrier system. However, there was little study on the effects of dietary AFB1 on the immune response of these immune organs in fish. This study aimed to explore the impacts of oral AFB1 on the immune competence and its mechanisms in the skin, spleen, and head kidney of grass carp. Our work indicated that dietary AFB1 reduced antibacterial compounds and immunoglobulins contents, and decreased the transcription levels of antimicrobial peptides in grass carp immune organs. In addition, dietary AFB1 increased the transcription levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reduced the transcription levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the grass carp immune organs, which might be regulated by NF-κB and TOR signaling, respectively. Meanwhile, we evaluated the content of AFB1 in the grass carp diet should not exceed 29.48 μg/kg diet according to the levels of acid phosphatase and lysozyme. In summary, dietary AFB1 impaired immune response in grass carp skin, spleen, and head kidney.

Fish feed mycobiota and aflatoxins in round fish tissues

BACKGROUND

Round fish is one of the most consumed fish in Brazil. Farmed fish feed is based mainly on grains, which are susceptible to contamination by mold and mycotoxins. Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. and Fusarium spp. are the major mycotoxins producers. The presence of potentially toxigenic fungi in the diet is a concern due to the possibility of cumulative toxins in fish tissues, becoming a risk to food safety. This study aims to assess the mycobiota of fish feed and the occurrence of aflatoxin residues in round fish tissues. Feed and fish samples were collected from fish farming and fish pay properties. Feed was submitted to mold counting and mold identification. The round fish liver and muscle were submitted to the detection and quantification of aflatoxins B₁ , B₂ , G₁ and G₂ by high-performance liquid chromatography.

RESULTS

In evaluated feed, mold counts in the samples ranged from 2.0 to 4.7 log colony forming units g^-1 and the major genera found were Penicillium (61.5%) and Aspergillus (34.6). Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁ ) was detected in 70% liver samples and 43.3% muscle samples, at levels up to 5.70 and 1.13 μg kg^-1 , respectively.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that, although the levels were lower than those recommended by Brazilian legislation, round fish are being exposed to diets naturally contaminated by aflatoxins and are susceptible to toxins accumulation in tissues. Therefore, regulations regarding feed should consider limits for mold and aflatoxin contamination in fish edible tissues should be monitored in order to ensure consumers' safety. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dietary garlic and chitosan enhanced the antioxidant capacity, immunity, and modulated the transcription of HSP70 and Cytokine genes in Zearalenone-intoxicated European seabass

The present study was performed to evaluate the toxic effects of feed-born zearalenone (ZEN) on antioxidative status, immunity, transcriptomic responses of European seabass, and the modulating roles of dietary garlic and/or chitosan powders. Fish (30.7 ± 0.6 g) were randomly arranged in five experimental groups (in triplicates), whereas the first group was fed on the control diet only without any supplements (control), and the second group was fed on the basal diet contaminated with ZEN (0.725 mg/kg diet). Three other groups were fed on ZEN-contaminated diets and simultaneously supplemented with garlic powder (GP) (30 g/kg diet) (ZEN + GP), chitosan powder (CH) (10 g/kg diet) (ZEN + CH), and a mixture of GP and CH (ZEN + GP + CH). Fish were fed on the experimental diets thrice a day for 4 weeks. Two-way ANOVA revealed a gradual decline in serum superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities in the ZEN group reaching their lowest levels at the 4th week. Contrariwise, malondialdehyde levels were markedly higher in the ZEN group reaching their highest values at the end of the experiment. A significant decline of total immunoglobulins (P < 0.05) was observed in the serum of the ZEN group, especially after the 4th week. Moreover, significant down-regulation of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) genes (P < 0.05) alongside significant up-regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) genes (P < 0.05) in the liver and anterior kidney of ZEN-intoxicated group. Interestingly, dietary supplementation with GP and CH significantly attenuated ZEN-induced oxidative stress, immunosuppression, and modulated transcriptomic responses of ZEN-exposed fish. Moreover, combined dietary supplementation of both feed additives resulted in better effects than each one alone.

Investigation of feedstuff contaminated with aflatoxigenic fungi species in the semi-arid region in northeast of Iran

There is a close relationship between human health and the quality of the ration used by domestic animals. Also, molds, like genus of Aspergillus, infect animal and human food products with dangerous toxic substances, i.e., aflatoxins that are causing primary and secondary mycotoxicosis in animals and human. The aim of this study was to compare fungal species that contaminated and produced aflatoxin in livestock and poultry feed in Gonabad that is a semi-arid city in northeast of Iran. Sampling was randomly performed three times from two livestock feed mills and two poultry feed mills during summer and autumn. Samples were cultured in two forms of solid and suspension in Sabouraud dextrose agar with chloramphenicol medium (SC) for 5 days in 28 °C. Microscopic diagnostic test and also molecular diagnostic test were used to determine fungal species in culture based on β-tubulin gene sequencing. A total of 27.25% and 31.7% of two livestock feed and two poultry feed samples were contaminated with Aspergillus, respectively. Aspergillus flavus (n = 4), Aspergillus Fumigatus (n = 2), Aspergillus versicolor (n = 2), Aspergillus niger (n = 2), Aspergillus parasiticus (n = 1), Aspergillus ochraceus (n = 1), and Aspergillus terreus (n = 1) were detected by molecular PCR test. The rate of contamination to genus of Aspergillus in autumn was higher than summer (P value = 0.008). Poultry feed sample showed more contamination to Aspergillus species compared with livestock feed.

Aflatoxicosis Dysregulates the Physiological Responses to Crowding Densities in the Marine Teleost Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata)

Several studies in fish have shown that aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) causes a disparity of species-dependent physiological disorders without compromising survival. We studied the effect of dietary administration of AFB1 (2 mg AFB1 kg^-1 diet) in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) juveniles in combination with a challenge by stocking density (4 vs. 40 g L^-1). The experimental period duration was ten days, and the diet with AFB1 was administered to the fish for 85 days prior to the stocking density challenge. Our results indicated an alteration in the carbohydrate and lipid metabolites mobilization in the AFB1 fed group, which was intensified at high stocking density (HSD). The CT group at HSD increased plasma cortisol levels, as expected, whereas the AFB1-HSD group did not. The star mRNA expression, an enzyme involved in cortisol synthesis in the head kidney, presented a ninefold increase in the AFB1 group at low stocking density (LSD) compared to the CT-LSD group. Adenohypophyseal gh mRNA expression increased in the AFB1-HSD but not in the CT-HSD group. Overall, these results confirmed that chronic AFB1 dietary exposure alters the adequate endocrinological physiological cascade response in S. aurata, compromising the expected stress response to an additional stressor, such as overcrowding.

Study on pathogenicity and characterization of disease causing fungal community associated with cultured fish of Kashmir valley, India

Cultured fisheries of developing countries are continously challenged by a number of pathogenic microbes. Among microbial diseases, fungal and fungal like pathogen outbreaks lead to negative social and economic impacts on stakeholders. The cultured fisheries of Kashmir valley are also facing challenge from fungal pathogens, leading to tremendous socio-economic lossess to the fish farmer community hence, yearns to boost the sector with efficient management strategy. Our study was aimed at investigating the diversity of fungal communities infecting cultured rainbow trout and carp fish species. We employed classical microbiology, macro and micro morphological characteristics, and molecular analysis (multilocus typing) for fungal identification. Also histopathological approach was used to examine the pathogenicity patterns of diverse fungal groups. The study revealed that the infection in fish was predisposed to both superficial as well as visceral organs. However, skin, gills and head were predominantly infected compared to internal organs. The microbiological investigation of infected fish by culture dependent approach helped us to obtain the total of 250 fungal isolates. Out of these isolates, 21 different species were identified belonging to three diverse fungal groups which mostly included 14 species among Ascomycetes, 03 species of Oomycetes and 04 species of Zygomycetes. The majority of fungi which were infectious to cultured fish of valley are biotrophic or opportunistic soil fungi, and some of them being exclusive pathogens of fish.

Ochratoxin A: Carryover from animal feed into livestock and the mitigation strategies

This review aims to highlight the effects of ochratoxin A (OTA) in the feed of meat-producing animals. The accumulation of OTA in feed and its distribution in various farm animals were compared and evaluated. Primarily, the oral administration of OTA-contaminated feed and the predisposition in an animal's vital organ were critically examined in this work. The collated reports show that OTA directly associated with endemic nephropathy and its high concentration leads to degeneration of liver cells, and necrosis of intestinal and lymphoid tissues. At present, limited reports are available in the recent literature on the problems and consequences of OTA in feed. Therefore, this review focused on the OTA carryover from feed to farm animals and the interaction of its secondary metabolites on their biochemical parameters. Hence, this report provides greater insights into animal health related to OTA residues in meat and meat products. This article also explores mitigation strategies that can be used to prevent the carryover effects of OTA in livestock feeds and the effects in the food chain.

Aflatoxin B1 induces reactive oxygen species-dependent caspase-mediated apoptosis in normal human cells, inhibits Allium cepa root cell division, and triggers inflammatory response in zebrafish larvae

Mycotoxin contamination of food and water is a serious global concern. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a deadly mycotoxin that contaminates both food and water bodies in the environment. AFB1 is reported to cause severe health issues, including hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, and immunotoxicity in humans; however, the mechanistic effects on plant and aquatic animals are not fully understood. To obtain a clear understanding of the effects of AFB1 on the ecosystem, we examined the influence of AFB1 exposure on different model systems corresponding to various habitats. In the current study, AFB1 contamination consequences were studied on a human normal cell lines (HaCaT, CCD 841 CoN), meristematic Allium cepa (onion) root cells, and zebrafish embryonic development. Our results clearly indicate that concentrations of AFB1 >10 μM are toxic to HaCaT cells. Morphological changes of HaCaT and CCD 841 CoN cells were clearly observed after exposure to AFB1. Particularly in HaCaT cells, treatment with 50 μM and 100 μM AFB1induces oxidative stress by excessive endogenous free-radical production such as ROS and NO generation. These consequences accelerate the ROS-dependent DNA damage events, which subsequently result in caspase mediated programmed cell death. Exposure of A. cepa root cells to AFB1 for 24 h resulted in abnormal cell division. A. cepa root cells subjected to AFB1 treatment showed a significant concentration-dependent increase in metaphase arrest. Exposure of zebrafish embryos to AFB1 also revealed that AFB1 contamination restricts the larval growth and development, resulting in a remarkably increased zebrafish mortality rate. Collectively, results of the current study indicate that AFB1 contamination triggers the programmed cell death machinery, subsequently affecting the ecosystem.

Larval zebrafish as an in vitro model for evaluating toxicological effects of mycotoxins

The presence of mycotoxins in food has created concern. Mycotoxin prevalence in our environment has changed in the last few years maybe due to climatic and other environmental changes. Evidence has emerged from in vitro and in vivo models: some mycotoxins have been found to be potentially carcinogenic, embryogenically harmful, teratogenic, and to generate nephrotoxicity. The risk assessment of exposures to mycotoxins at early life stages became mandatory. In this regard, the effects of toxic compounds on zebrafish have been widely studied, and more recently, mycotoxins have been tested with respect to their effects on developmental and teratogenic effects in this model system, which offers several advantages as it is an inexpensive and an accessible vertebrate model to study developmental toxicity. External post-fertilization and quick maturation make it sensitive to environmental effects and facilitate the detection of endpoints such as morphological deformities, time of hatching, and behavioral responses. Therefore, there is a potential for larval zebrafish to provide new insights into the toxicological effects of mycotoxins. We provide an overview of recent mycotoxin toxicological research in zebrafish embryos and larvae, highlighting its usefulness to toxicology and discuss the strengths and limitations of this model system.

Co-Occurrence and Levels of Mycotoxins in Fish Feeds in Kenya

This study determined the presence, levels and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in fish feeds in Kenya. Seventy-eight fish feeds and ingredients were sampled from fish farms and fish feed manufacturing plants and analysed for 40 mycotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Twenty-nine (73%) mycotoxins were identified with 76 (97%) samples testing positive for mycotoxins presence. Mycotoxins with the highest prevalences were enniatin B (91%), deoxynivalenol (76%) and fumonisin B1 (54%) while those with the highest maximum levels were sterigmatocystin (<30.5–3517.1 µg/kg); moniliformin (<218.9–2583.4 µg/kg) and ergotamine (<29.3–1895.6 µg/kg). Mycotoxin co-occurrence was observed in 68 (87%) samples. Correlations were observed between the fumonisins; enniatins B and zearalenone and its metabolites. Fish dietary exposure estimates ranged between <0.16 and 43.38 µg/kg body weight per day. This study shows evidence of mycotoxin presence and co-occurrence in fish feeds and feed ingredients in Kenya. Fish exposure to these levels of mycotoxins over a long period of time may lead to adverse health effects due to their possible additive, synergistic or antagonist toxic effects. Measures to reduce fish feed mycotoxin contamination should be taken to avoid mycotoxicosis in fish and subsequently in humans and animals through residues.

Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Fish Feed and Its Effects: A Review

Plant-based ingredients have been successfully replacing fishmeal in finished fish feeds. However, using crops in feeds results in an increased risk of contamination by fungi and mycotoxins and a higher incidence of mycotoxicosis in fish. This might decrease aquaculture's productivity as mycotoxicosis generally result in decreased body weight, growth impairment and higher rates of disease and mortality in fish. Additionally, some mycotoxins might accumulate in the fish musculature. As such, fish consumption might become another way for mycotoxins to enter the human food chain, threatening food security and public health as mycotoxins are important genotoxins, carcinogens and immunosuppressors to humans. In this work we aim to provide a review on the most important mycotoxins found in crops and in finished fish feed, i.e., aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes and zearalenone. We present their effects on the health of fish and humans and their regulations in the European Union. Although work has been performed in mycotoxin research ever since the 1960s, a lot of information is still lacking regarding its effects. However, it is noticed that in order to use crops in aquafeed production, efforts should be made in order to monitor its contamination by mycotoxinogenic fungi and mycotoxins.