Characteristics of Chronic Pain among Head and Neck Cancer Patients Treated with Radiation Therapy: A Retrospective Study

Radiation-induced chronic pain plagues head and neck cancer survivors: A cross-sectional analysis from the Cohort in Radiotherapy-related Nervous System Complications

The epidemiology and prognosis of radiation-induced chronic pain, especially chronic neuropathic pain (CNP), are the understudied domain among head and neck cancer (HNC) survivors after radiotherapy (RT). This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of such chronic pain, and explore their correlations with mental health, sleep disorders, cognitive function, and quality of life (QOL) within these patients. This research encompassed HNC survivors post-RT. The determination of radiation-induced chronic pain and CNP adhered to the guidelines outlined by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP). Multivariable regression analyses were employed to explore the relationship between pain and anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, cognitive function, and QOL. A total of 1071 HNC survivors post-RT were included in this study. The prevalence of radiation-induced chronic pain was 67.1%, and the prevalence of RT-associated CNP was 38.3%,. Compared with those reporting no pain, patients with radiation-induced chronic pain had a significantly increased risk of anxiety, depression and sleep disorders (all p < 0.001). And there was a significantly negative association between chronic pain and QOL across physiological (p < 0.001), psychological (p < 0.001), social relationships (p = 0.001) and environmental (p = 0.009) domains. Compared with non-CNP, patients with RT-related CNP had a higher risk of anxiety (p= 0.027) and sleep disorders (p= 0.013). The significantly negative associations were found between CNP and the physiological (p = 0.001), psychological (p = 0.012) and social score (p = 0.035) in WHOQOL-BREF. This study underscores the substantial prevalence of chronic pain, particularly CNP, and their potential impact on the mental health, sleep, and QOL among HNC survivors post-RT. PERSPECTIVE: This study highlights the high prevalence of radiation-induced chronic pain and CNP, and their potential impacts on anxiety, depression, sleep and QOL among the HNC survivors. Clinically, these findings have important implications for improving the care and outcomes of HNC survivors.

Pain management for persistent pain post radiotherapy in head and neck cancers: systematic review

OBJECTIVES

To systematically review the existing literature for evidence of efficacy around interventions in the management of persistent pain post radiotherapy for head and neck cancers.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted to assess the effectiveness and safety of interventions for the management of persistent post-radiotherapy pain in head and neck cancers. The primary outcome evaluated whether an intervention resulted in a reduction in pain which was determined using validated pain tools.

RESULTS

Two randomised controlled trials involving 196 participants fulfilled the inclusion criteria, one evaluating the effect of hypnotherapy and the other evaluating the effect of pregabalin on radiotherapy related pain in head and neck cancer patients. In one study by Thuma et al. (2016) there was a decrease in pain scores in the hypnotherapy group (p<0.001). In the other study, by Jiang et al. (2018) patients treated with pregabalin had a greater reduction in pain intensity, pain severity and a reduction in pain functional interference (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of our review suggest that in chronic post-radiotherapy pain for head and neck cancers there is very-low level evidence for the use of hypnotherapy in reducing pain scores and for the use of pregabalin in reducing pain intensity, severity, functional interference and psychological distress with significant improvement in quality of life.

Photobiomodulation therapy in the treatment of radiotherapy-related trismus of the head and neck

This study evaluated photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) for treatment of trismus in patients undergoing radiotherapy for head and neck cancer (HNC). Sixteen patients, 10 men and 6 women, who had a mouth opening < 35 mm and underwent RT were included. The patients were evaluated daily before and after the PBMT application, measuring mouth opening and performing pain scores for the masticatory muscles using the visual analog scale (VAS). We used the infrared laser (~ 808 nm) extraorally, 0.1 W power, 3 J energy, 30 s (107 J/cm2) per point, applied to temporalis anterior, masseter muscles, and temporomandibular joints (TMJ). An intraoral point was made in the trigonoretromolar region towards the medial pterygoid muscle. The mean mouth opening of the patients increased by more than 7 mm throughout the treatment. The pain scores on the initial days showed an immediate reduction after PBMT on the ipsilateral side in the muscles and TMJ. Throughout PBMT applications, there was a significant reduction in pain scores in all muscles and the TMJ. The radiation dose of all patients was above 40 Gy, which is the threshold dose for the risk of developing trismus. SPSS software was used and adopted a confidence of 95%. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test, Wilcoxon test, and Spearman correlation were performed. PBMT controls muscular pain and reduced mouth opening limitation in HNC during radiotherapy. Further studies are needed to evaluate the preventive capacity of PBMT protocols for RT trismus-related HNC.

Study protocol of the TEC-ORL clinical trial: a randomized comparative phase II trial investigating the analgesic activity of capsaicin vs Laroxyl in head and neck Cancer survivors presenting with neuropathic pain sequelae

BACKGROUND

Neuropathic pain is common in cancer survivorship and is one of the most distressing symptoms for patients previously treated for head and neck cancer. Persistent neuropathic pain, when it is ongoing and uncontrolled, has a detrimental effect and erodes patients' quality of life. Patients treated for head and neck cancer are chronic opioid users to manage their post-treatment pain, which may entail an increased risk of addiction and overdose. We propose to evaluate the analgesic activity of high-concentration capsaicin patches for the treatment of head and neck cancer survivors presenting with neuropathic pain sequelae.

METHODS

TEC-ORL is a parallel, multicenter randomized comparative phase II study evaluating whether Capsaïcin patches (Qutenza®) reduce neuropathic pain when compared to Amitriptyline (Laroxyl®) in head and neck cancer survivors presenting with neuropathic pain sequelae. The primary efficacy outcome is the rate of patients with a pain reduction of at least two points at 9 months compared to baseline. Assuming that 5% of patients become lost to follow-up, 130 patients will need to be randomized to detect a 25% improvement (i.e., standard: 25%, experimental: 50%) using a one-sided chi-square test with an alpha of 0.05%. According to the recommendations for comparative phase II trials, the target differences and type I error rates are relaxed. Randomized patients will either be treated with a capsaicin 8% (Qutenza®) patch applied at three time intervals in the experimental arm or with Amitriptyline (Laroxyl®) (oral solution 40 mg/ml) taken for 9 months at the recommended daily dose of 25 mg to 75 mg in the control arm.

DISCUSSION

TEC-ORL is a randomized comparative phase II trial designed to comprehensively evaluate the analgesic activity of capsaicin compared to Laroxyl in Head and Neck Cancer survivors presenting with neuropathic pain sequelae.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04704453 Date of registration: 2021/01/13.

Neuropathic pain prevalence and risk factors in head and neck cancer survivors

BACKGROUND

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a debilitating symptom among head and neck cancer (HNC) survivors although few large studies report its prevalence and associated risk factors.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey assessing demographic, behavioral, and clinical risk factors for NP. NP was assessed using the Self-administered Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs pain scale (S-LANSS).

RESULTS

Forty-five percent (227/505) reported having pain including 13.7% (69/505) who were positive for S-LANSS. Reported pain sites were in the regions of the head and oral cavity (46.2%) and neck and throat (41.5%). Despite a higher self-reported use of analgesic medication (NP+ = 41.2%; NP- = 27.4%; p = 0.020) and alternative pain therapies (NP+ = 19.1%; NP- = 8.4%; p = 0.009), severe pain was more prevalent among those with NP (N+ = 23.2%; NP- = 13.3%; p = 0.004). Adjusted for opioid medications, ethnicity/race, age, surgery, depression, and comorbidities were risk factors for NP.

CONCLUSION

NP remains prevalent in HNC survivors highlighting the importance of routine pain surveillance.

Altered metabolic connectivity between the amygdala and default mode network is related to pain perception in patients with cancer

We investigated the neural correlates for chronic cancer pain conditions by retrospectively analyzing whole brain regions on 18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose-positron emission tomography images acquired from 80 patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and esophageal cancer. The patients were divided into three groups according to perceived pain severity and type of analgesic treatment, namely patients not under analgesic treatment because of no or minor pain, patients with good pain control under analgesic treatment, and patients with poor pain control despite analgesic treatment. Uncontrollable cancer pain enhanced the activity of the hippocampus, amygdala, inferior temporal gyrus, and temporal pole. Metabolic connectivity analysis further showed that amygdala co-activation with the hippocampus was reduced in the group with poor pain control and preserved in the groups with no or minor pain and good pain control. The increased although imbalanced activity of the medial temporal regions may represent poor pain control in patients with cancer. The number of patients who used anxiolytics was higher in the group with poor pain control, whereas the usage rates were comparable between the other two groups. Therefore, further studies should investigate the relationship between psychological conditions and pain in patients with cancer and analyze the resultant brain activity.Trial registration: This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov on 9/3/20 (NCT04537845).

Pain and suicide: what should we tell our trainees?

Chronic pain is a debilitating medical condition affecting a significant percentage of the population worldwide. Considerable evidence suggests that pain is an independent risk factor for suicide and inadequately managing pain has been identified as a risk for suicidal behaviour. Additionally, medications used to treat pain may also contribute to suicidal behaviour. Extensive research on pain highlights deficiencies in the clinical management on pain with more gaps in care when patients have pain in combination with mental illness and suicidal behaviour. Providing trainees additional knowledge and equipping them with relevant tools to screen and manage chronic pain efficiently is a potential strategy to mitigate suicide risk. Also, trainees need to be educated on how to screen for suicidality in individuals with pain and apply suicide prevention interventions. This paper will emphasise the necessity to improve education about pain, its close relationship with suicide and effective suicide screening as well as management strategies for medical providers. With additional research, it is the hope that novel treatment modalities will be developed to treat pain to improve the quality of life of individuals suffering from this condition and to decrease suicide risk in this patient population.

Changes in Plasma Beta-Endorphin Levels in Stage III–IV Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Patients Post World Health Organization 3-Step Analgesic Ladder Therapy

Introduction Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is the most common malignancy in the field of otorhinolaryngology, and chronic pain is identical with this malignancy. Pain therapy according to World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations is WHO 3-step analgesic ladder. Pain is subjective and related to the function of beta-endorphin hormone.

Objective Analyzing the relationship between the degree of pain and plasma endorphin levels in stage III–IV NPC patients before and after the administration of WHO 3-step analgesic ladder.

Materials and Methods The study design used pretest and posttest without control design. Participants were given WHO 3-step analgesic ladder therapy for 3 days. The participants then rated the pain scale using the visual analog scale (VAS) and plasma beta-endorphin levels in venous blood. The statistical test used the dependent t-test, Wilcoxon test, and Spearman test with p < 0.05, confidence interval: 95%.

Results There were 14 stage-III NPC patients with moderate pain (78.57%) and 31 stage-IV NPC participants had moderate pain (83.87%; p = 0.071). The VAS value in the moderate pain group before and after therapy was 82.22 and 66.67%, respectively (p < 0.001). The values of plasma beta-endorphin levels before and after therapy were 74.89 ± 69.12 and 72.49 ± 75.53 pg/mL, respectively (p = 0.647). Plasma beta-endorphin levels were −19.20 ± 37.72 pg/mL (mild pain), −4.76 ± 35.30 pg/mL (moderate pain), and −21.67 ± 6.27 pg/mL (severe pain; p = 0.717).

Conclusion Pain levels in advanced NPC patients have decreased after the therapy, but plasma beta-endorphin levels have no significant difference.

Risk of Chronic Opioid Use After Radiation for Head and Neck Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Purpose

Opioid addiction is a major public health concern. Chronic opioid use (COU) patterns after radiation for head and neck cancer (HNC) remain poorly understood. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of COU and to identify its risk factors in patients with HNC undergoing curative-intent radiation therapy (RT) or chemoradiotherapy (CRT).

Methods and Materials

We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis using the PubMed (Medline), EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases, queried from dates of inception until January 2020. COU was defined as persistent use of opioids ≥ 3 months after treatment completion. Meta-analyses were performed using random effects models. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I² value.

Results

Seven retrospective studies, reporting on 1841 patients, met the inclusion criteria. Median age was 59.4 (range: 56.0-62.0) years with 1343 (72.9%) men and 498 (27.1%) women. Primary tumor locations included oropharynx (n = 891, 48.4%), oral cavity (n = 533, 29.0%), larynx (n = 93, 5.1%), hypopharynx (n = 32, 1.7%), and nasopharynx (n = 29, 1.6%). Eight hundred fifty-four (46.0%) patients had stage I/II and 952 (50.3%) had stage III-IV disease. Three hundred one (16.3%) patients had RT alone, 738 (40.1%) received CRT, and 594 (32.3%) underwent surgery followed by adjuvant RT/CRT. The proportion of patients with HNC who developed COU post-RT/CRT was 40.7% at 3 months (95% confidence interval [CI]: 22.6%-61.7%; I² = 97.1%) and 15.5% at 6 months (95% CI: 7.3%-29.7%; I² = 94.3%). Oropharyngeal malignancies had the highest rate of COU based on primary tumor location (46.6%; 95% CI: 30.8%-63.1%; P < .0001). High proportions of COU were found in patients with a history of psychiatric disorder(s) (61.7%), former/current alcohol abuse (53.9%), and opioid requirements before radiation treatment (51.6%; P = .035).

Conclusions

A significant proportion of patients who undergo RT for HNC suffer from COU. High-risk factors for COU include an oropharyngeal primary, history of psychiatric disorder, former/current alcohol abuse, and pre-treatment opioid use. New strategies to mitigate COU are needed.

Implications of Treatment Modality on Chronic Opioid Use Following Treatment for Head and Neck Cancer

Objective

To investigate the relationship between treatment modality and chronic opioid use in a large cohort of patients with head and neck cancer.

Study Design

Retrospective cohort study.

Setting

Single academic center.

Methods

There were 388 patients with head and neck cancer treated between January 2011 and December 2017 who met inclusion criteria. Clinical risk factors for opioid use at 3 and 6 months were determined with univariate and multivariate analyses.

Results

The prevalence of opioid use was 43.0% at 3 months and 33.2% at 6 months. On multivariate analysis, primary chemoradiation (odds ratio [OR], 4.04; 95% CI, 1.91-8.55) and surgery with adjuvant chemoradiation (OR, 2.39; 95% CI, 1.09-5.26) were associated with opioid use at 3 months. Additional risk factors at that time point included pretreatment opioid use (OR, 7.63; 95% CI, 4.09-14.21) and decreasing age (OR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.01-1.06). At 6 months, primary chemoradiation (OR, 2.40; 95% CI, 1.34-4.28), pretreatment opioid use (OR, 5.86; 95% CI, 3.30-10.38), current tobacco use (OR, 2.00; 95% CI, 1.18-3.40), and psychiatric disorder (OR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.02-3.14) were associated with opioid use.

Conclusion

Of the patients who receive different treatment modalities, those receiving primary chemoradiation are independently at highest risk for chronic opioid use. Other risk factors include pretreatment opioid use, tobacco use, and a psychiatric disorder. In an effort to reduce their risk of chronic opioid use, preventative strategies should be especially directed to these patients.