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Johnson A, Vaithilingan S, Ragunathan L. Quantifying the Occurrence of High-Risk Pregnancy: A Comprehensive Survey. Cureus 2024; 16:e59040. [PMID: 38800298 PMCID: PMC11128061 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.59040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Background High-risk pregnancies are characterized by various factors that pose potential risks to maternal and newborn health outcomes. Early detection of these high-risk pregnancies serves as a crucial initial step in preventing maternal mortality and morbidity, thereby promoting the overall health of both mother and baby. This study sought to assess the occurrence of high-risk pregnancy and investigate the factors associated with it among pregnant women. Methods A descriptive survey was undertaken at the Obstetrics and Gynaecology outpatient department of a District Government Hospital in Tamil Nadu, involving 1889 pregnant women in their second and third trimesters. A structured questionnaire, constructed following the Indian standard criteria outlined by the National Health Portal of India, served as the data collection tool. The survey was conducted in February and March 2022, during which pregnant women were interviewed. Subsequently, the collected data underwent descriptive and inferential statistical analysis. Results Among the 1889 pregnant women surveyed, 29% (n=530) were classified as high-risk pregnancies. Within this group, 34.3% (n=182) were diagnosed with hypothyroidism, while 23.2% (n=123) experienced pregnancy-induced hypertension. Significant associations with high-risk pregnancy were observed for factors such as age, education status, occupation, family income, socioeconomic status, and gravida among the pregnant women. Conclusion Policymakers must urgently implement evidence-based interventions aimed at early detection and treatment of high-risk pregnancies. This proactive approach is essential in preventing maternal mortality and morbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alby Johnson
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Vinayaka Mission's Research Foundation, Salem, IND
| | - Sasi Vaithilingan
- Child Health Nursing, Vinayaka Mission's College of Nursing, Puducherry, Vinayaka Mission's Research Foundation, Puducherry, IND
| | - Latha Ragunathan
- Microbiology, Aarupadai Veedu Medical College and Hospital, Vinayaka Mission's Research Foundation, Puducherry, IND
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Vaishnav S, Pandya D, Shrivastava R, Patel N, Phatak AG, Patel A. Early treatment will prevent feto-maternal complications in thyroid disorders during pregnancy: A prospective study. J Family Med Prim Care 2023; 12:3393-3398. [PMID: 38361867 PMCID: PMC10866218 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1185_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Context Associations between adverse maternal complications and fetal outcomes are known entity in thyroid disorders during pregnancy. Thus, prompt identification of thyroid disorders and timely initiation of treatment is essential. Universal screening and early treatment of pregnant women for thyroid disorder should be considered especially in a resource-limited country like India with a high prevalence of undiagnosed thyroid disorders and adverse feto-maternal outcomes. Aims Early treatment will prevent feto-maternal complications in thyroid disorders in pregnant females visiting outpatient department in tertiary care hospital in rural settings. Settings and Design This study was conducted in a tertiary care rural-based medical college with participation from departments of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medicine, and ENT. Methods and Material Expectant mothers in first trimester who had urine pregnancy test positive in outpatient clinic were included after a written informed consent. Detailed history and examination was done. TSH was done if abnormal-FT3 and FT4 were done. All thyroid disorders were treated according to American Thyroid Association (ATA) 2017 guideline. All pregnancies were followed up for maternal complications and fetal outcomes. Statistical Analysis Used Data from the performa were entered in Office Excel and analysis was performed using STATA (14.2). Descriptive statistics (mean [standard deviation], Frequency [%], etc.) were used to depict profile of study participants, prevalence of thyroid dysfunction, and outcome measures. Chi-square test was employed to assess the association between thyroid dysfunction and various maternal and fetal outcomes. A P value less than. 05 was considered statistically significant. Results Of 350 pregnant females, 83 (23.5%) pregnant females had thyroid disorder. Of which, 33 (9.4%) had subclinical hypothyroidism, 37 (10.5%) had overt hypothyroidism, 11 (3.1%) had subclinical hyperthyroidism, and two (0.5%) had hyperthyroidism. The prevalence of hypothyroidism in pregnancy increases with increasing age (P value. 001) and not associated with parity, abortion, and consumption of iodized salt. Total patients with feto-maternal outcome follow-up were 241. Pre-eclampsia (P value. 004) was a significant complication in hypothyroid mothers. There was no significant difference in the rate of cesarean section and preterm delivery in hypothyroid and euthyroid mothers. Neonatal outcomes showed more trends of abortion, fetal demise, and IUFD in the hypothyroid group, although not statistically significant. (P value. 07). Conclusions Due to the high prevalence of thyroid disorders during pregnancy, universal screening of thyroid disorders should be done in early pregnancy instead of high-risk screening. Early detection and early treatment in the first 10 weeks of pregnancy help to prevent maternal and fetal complications of thyroid disorders in pregnancy. Pre-eclampsia is to be monitored in treated pregnant females with hypothyroidism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smruti Vaishnav
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology Department, Pramukhswami Medical College and Shree Krishna Hospital, Bhaikaka University, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat, India
| | - Dharak Pandya
- Consultant Physician, Yogeshwar Hospital, Chhotaudepur, Gujarat, India
| | - Rama Shrivastava
- Obstetrics and Gynaecology Department, Pramukhswami Medical College and Shree Krishna Hospital, Bhaikaka University, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat, India
| | - Nimeshkumar Patel
- ENT Department, Pramukhswami Medical College and Shree Krishna Hospital, Bhaikaka University, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat, India
| | - Ajay G. Phatak
- Central Research Services, Pramukhswami Medical College, Bhaikaka University, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat, India
| | - Alpaben Patel
- Medicine Department, Pramukhswami Medical College and Shree Krishna Hospital, Bhaikaka University, Karamsad, Anand, Gujarat, India
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Dhabhai N, Chowdhury R, Virmani A, Chaudhary R, Taneja S, Mittal P, Dewan R, Dang A, Kaur J, Bhandari N. Burden, risk factors and outcomes associated with adequately treated hypothyroidism in a population-based cohort of pregnant women from North India. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0282381. [PMID: 37703246 PMCID: PMC10499229 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypothyroidism is the commonest endocrine disorder of pregnancy, with known adverse feto-maternal outcomes. There is limited data on population-based prevalence, risk factors and outcomes associated with treatment of hypothyroidism in early pregnancy. We conducted analysis on data from an urban and peri-urban low to mid socioeconomic population-based cohort of pregnant women in North Delhi, India to ascertain the burden, risk factors and impact of treatment, on adverse pregnancy outcomes- low birth weight, prematurity, small for gestational age and stillbirth. This is an observational study embedded within the intervention group of the Women and Infants Integrated Interventions for Growth Study, an individually randomized factorial design trial. Thyroid stimulating hormone was tested in 2317 women in early (9-13 weeks) pregnancy, and thyroxin replacement started hypothyroid (TSH ≥2.5mIU/mL). Univariable and multivariable generalized linear model with binomial family and log link were performed to ascertain risk factors associated with hypothyroidism and association between hypothyroidism and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Of 2317 women, 29.2% (95% CI: 27.4 to 31.1) had hypothyroidism and were started on thyroxin replacement with close monitoring. Overweight or obesity was associated with increased risk (adjusted RR 1.29, 95% CI 1.10 to 1.51), while higher hemoglobin concentration was associated with decreased risk (adjusted RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.88 to 0.98 for each g/dL) for hypothyroidism. Hypothyroid women received appropriate treatment with no increase in adverse pregnancy outcomes. Almost a third of women from low to mid socio-economic population had hypothyroidism in early pregnancy, more so if anemic and overweight or obese. With early screening and adequate replacement, adverse pregnancy outcomes may be avoided. These findings highlight the need in early pregnancy for universal TSH screening and adequate treatment of hypothyroidism; as well as for attempts to reduce pre and peri-conception overweight, obesity and anemia. Clinical trial registration: Clinical trial registration of Women and Infants Integrated Interventions for Growth Study Clinical Trial Registry-India, #CTRI/2017/06/008908; Registered on: 23/06/2017, (http://ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=19339&EncHid=&userName=society%20for%20applied%20studies).
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeta Dhabhai
- Centre for Health Research and Development, Society for Applied Studies, New Delhi, India
| | - Ranadip Chowdhury
- Centre for Health Research and Development, Society for Applied Studies, New Delhi, India
| | - Anju Virmani
- Department of Pediatrics, Max Smart Superspeciality Hospital, Saket, Rainbow Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Ritu Chaudhary
- Centre for Health Research and Development, Society for Applied Studies, New Delhi, India
| | - Sunita Taneja
- Centre for Health Research and Development, Society for Applied Studies, New Delhi, India
| | - Pratima Mittal
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Vardhaman Mahavir Medical College and Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Rupali Dewan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Vardhaman Mahavir Medical College and Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Jasmine Kaur
- Centre for Health Research and Development, Society for Applied Studies, New Delhi, India
| | - Nita Bhandari
- Centre for Health Research and Development, Society for Applied Studies, New Delhi, India
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Palepu S, Singh AK, Saharia GK, Patra S, Singh S, Taywade M, Bhatia V. Hypothyroidism in Pregnancy: An Alarming Concern in a Rural Community of Eastern India. Indian J Community Med 2023; 48:187-189. [PMID: 37082384 PMCID: PMC10112754 DOI: 10.4103/ijcm.ijcm_529_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Hypothyroidism exerts a multitude of effects on pregnant women and newborns. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of hypothyroidism and its associated factors among pregnant women. Material and Methods This cross-sectional study was done at a community health center in Tangi, Eastern India. A total of 436 pregnant women ≤24 weeks gestation attending the ante-natal clinic were recruited by consecutive sampling after obtaining written informed consent. Those who were a known case of any psychiatric disorder and were not able to comprehend interview questions were excluded. Estimation of serum thyroid stimulating hormone levels was done at the central laboratory of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar. Analysis was done using STATA 17.0 and presented as means or proportions. The association of hypothyroidism with various sociodemographic factors was analyzed with bivariate logistic regression. Results Mean age of the study participants was 23.9 years (SD: 3.65). About 31.4% of participants were found to have hypothyroidism. On bivariate logistic regression, the presence of hypothyroidism was not associated with any variable. Conclusions Hypothyroidism is widely prevalent in pregnant females in rural India. Screening of high-risk pregnant females followed by appropriate management is essential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Suravi Patra
- Department of Psychiatry, AIIMS, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Sweta Singh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, AIIMS, Bhubaneswar, India
| | | | - Vikas Bhatia
- Department of Executive Director, AIIMS, Bibinagar, Telangana, India
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Adverse Effects of Hypothyroidism on Fertility and Pregnancy: A Mini Review. MEDICAL LABORATORY JOURNAL 2022. [DOI: 10.52547/mlj.16.4.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
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Dash SC, Sahoo N, Rout U, Mishra SP, Swain J, Mazumder AG. Outcomes With Levothyroxine Treatment in Early Pregnancy With Subclinical Hypothyroidism. Cureus 2022; 14:e24984. [PMID: 35719785 PMCID: PMC9191263 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.24984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) are well documented, whereas data regarding the risk and benefit of levothyroxine treatment in such cases are insufficient and inconsistent. Our study aimed to evaluate the effects of levothyroxine treatment on pregnancy outcomes in these women. Materials and methods Healthy women with a singleton pregnancy were screened before 12 weeks of gestation for subclinical hypothyroidism using 2017 American Thyroid Association guidelines. They were treated with an initial dose of 50 mcg of levothyroxine and the dose was adjusted at six-week intervals to achieve a normal thyrotropin level. All the participants were followed up with thyroid function tests and ultrasonography till delivery. Pregnancy outcomes were compared with those of healthy pregnant women with normal thyroid function. Results A total of 1058 women were screened and 5.1% (n=54) were found to have subclinical hypothyroidism, out of which 57.4% (n=31) were thyroid peroxidase antibody positive. The median gestational age at the initiation of levothyroxine treatment was nine weeks. The risks for miscarriage (odds ratio (OR): 1.284, p=0.811), gestational hypertension (OR: 1.993, p=0.365), intra-uterine growth restriction (OR: 1.688, p=0.488), low birth weight (OR: 1.591, p=0.392), and preterm birth (OR: 1.606, p=0.529) were not significantly higher in women with subclinical hypothyroidism as compared to euthyroid women. However, the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus was significantly higher in women with SCH (OR: 3.432, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 1.115-10.562). Conclusion Levothyroxine therapy initiated in the first trimester of pregnancy has possible beneficial effects in subclinical hypothyroidism but with a higher risk for gestational diabetes.
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Dash P, Tiwari R, Nayak S, Jena SK, Mangaraj M. Prevalence of Subclinical Hypothyroidism in Pregnancy and Its Association With Anti-thyroperoxidase Antibody and the Occurrence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Cureus 2022; 14:e21087. [PMID: 35165548 PMCID: PMC8828193 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.21087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are common endocrinological abnormalities associated with pregnancy. The presence of a raised anti-thyroperoxidase (anti-TPO) antibody titer increases the risk of progression of subclinical hypothyroidism to overt hypothyroidism. Subclinical hypothyroidism and GDM are known to affect maternal and fetal outcomes adversely. A few studies have shown an increased risk of GDM with autoimmune hypothyroidism. However, data regarding this association between GDM, SCH, and anti-TPO Ab are scarce. This study aimed to find the prevalence of autoimmune subclinical hypothyroidism and its association with GDM in pregnancy. Materials and methods In a cross-sectional study, 382 pregnant women at their first antenatal checkup (ANC) were enrolled in the study. Serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), free T4 (FT4), anti-TPO Ab, and the 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were evaluated. The results obtained were analyzed in Systat Version 13.2 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Observations Results showed an SCH prevalence of 37.69% with a raised anti-TPO Ab titer in 49.31% of the diagnosed SCH cases, pointing towards an autoimmune etiology. Our study revealed a GDM prevalence of 12.04%. Out of the 46 GDM cases, 16 were found to have SCH and 3 cases had raised anti-TPO Ab titers. In our study, 27.73% of euthyroid pregnant women had a raised anti-TPO Ab titer. Our study revealed no significant association between GDM, SCH, and raised anti-TPO Ab titer. Conclusion Anti-TPO antibody subsequently leads to hypothyroxinemia, for which it is necessary that cases with high titer of anti-TPO antibody though euthyroid should be meticulously followed up and screened for to detect development of hypothyroidism or SCH, particularly in future pregnancies. However, GDM prevalence was at par with the national figure, but with no significant association of SCH and a high anti-TPO ab titer was found with GDM in our study. Further studies with a larger cohort may establish a causal association between the two most common endocrinological disorders observed in pregnancy.
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Lavu A, Vaccaro C, Shouman W, Severini SA, Eltonsy S. Anti-epileptic drug exposure during pregnancy and neonatal birth weight outcomes: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev 2021; 10:159. [PMID: 34051859 PMCID: PMC8164239 DOI: 10.1186/s13643-021-01711-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prevalence of epilepsy in pregnant women is estimated at 0.3-1%. Anti-epileptic drug (AED) exposure in-utero has been associated with various adverse health outcomes in neonates, including adverse birth weight outcomes. OBJECTIVE This review aims to summarize the published evidence on the association between AED exposure in pregnancy and adverse birth weight outcomes METHODS: Studies assessing AED exposure in pregnancy and neonatal birth weight outcomes, including small for gestational age (SGA), low birth weight (LBW), birth weight (BW), length, head circumference, and cephalization index will be identified in MEDLINE®, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (IPA), and Global Health. Open grey, Theses Canada, and ProQuest Dissertations will be used to locate gray literature. Eligible study designs will include both intervention and non-interventional studies. We will not impose any time limit in the review. We will use the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale to assess the methodological quality of observational studies and quasi-experimental studies included in the review. The risk of bias of experimental studies will be appraised using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2). A meta-analysis will be conducted using a random-effects model. DISCUSSION The results from this review could improve clinicians' prescribing decisions by highlighting the safest AEDs for women who are pregnant or planning to conceive based on the evidence currently available. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION PROSPERO CRD42020192713.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alekhya Lavu
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, 750 McDermot Ave W, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5 Canada
| | - Christine Vaccaro
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, 750 McDermot Ave W, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5 Canada
| | - Walid Shouman
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, 750 McDermot Ave W, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5 Canada
| | - Silvia Alessi Severini
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, 750 McDermot Ave W, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5 Canada
| | - Sherif Eltonsy
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, 750 McDermot Ave W, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5 Canada
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Gajbhiye RK, Mahajan NN, Waghmare RB, Zala S, Chaaithanya IK, Kuppusamy P, Bhurke AV, Pious M, Surve S, Modi DN, Mahale SD. Clinical characteristics, outcomes, & mortality in pregnant women with COVID-19 in Maharashtra, India: Results from PregCovid registry. Indian J Med Res 2021; 153:629-636. [PMID: 34596595 PMCID: PMC8555584 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_1938_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & objectives The PregCovid registry was established to document the clinical presentations, pregnancy outcomes and mortality of pregnant and post-partum women with COVID-19. Methods The PregCovid registry prospectively collects information in near-real time on pregnant and post-partum women with a laboratory-confirmed diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 from 19 medical colleges across the State of Maharashtra, India. Data of 4203 pregnant women collected during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (March 2020-January 2021) was analyzed. Results There were 3213 live births, 77 miscarriages and 834 undelivered pregnancies. The proportion of pregnancy/foetal loss including stillbirths was six per cent. Five hundred and thirty-four women (13%) were symptomatic, of which 382 (72%) had mild, 112 (21%) had moderate, and 40 (7.5%) had severe disease. The most common complication was preterm delivery (528, 16.3%) and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (328, 10.1%). A total of 158 (3.8%) pregnant and post-partum women required intensive care, of which 152 (96%) were due to COVID-19 related complications. The overall case fatality rate (CFR) in pregnant and post-partum women with COVID-19 was 0.8 per cent (34/4203). Higher CFR was observed in Pune (9/853, 1.1%), Marathwada (4/351, 1.1%) regions as compared to Vidarbha (9/1155, 0.8%), Mumbai Metropolitan (11/1684, 0.7%), and Khandesh (1/160, 0.6%) regions. Comorbidities of anaemia, tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus were associated with maternal deaths. Interpretation & conclusions The study demonstrates the adverse outcomes including severe COVID-19 disease, pregnancy loss and maternal death in women with COVID-19 in Maharashtra, India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul K. Gajbhiye
- Department of Clinical Research Lab, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Niraj N. Mahajan
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Topiwala National Medical College & BYL Nair Charitable Hospital, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Rakesh B. Waghmare
- Medical Education & Drugs Department, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Sarika Zala
- Department of Clinical Research Lab, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Itta Krishna Chaaithanya
- Department of Molecular Immunology & Microbiology, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Periyasamy Kuppusamy
- Department of Clinical Research Lab, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Aishwarya V. Bhurke
- Department of Clinical Research Lab, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Merlin Pious
- Department of Clinical Research Lab, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Suchitra Surve
- Department of Clinical Research, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Deepak N. Modi
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Biology Laboratory, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Smita D. Mahale
- ICMR-National Institute for Research in Reproductive Health, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
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