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Overview of the miR-29 family members' function in breast cancer. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 230:123280. [PMID: 36652981 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence has indicated the importance of microRNAs (miRs) in the biology of human malignancies by targeting multiple signaling pathways and different Messenger RNA transcripts. Despite conflicting information and controversial roles in diverse cancers, miR-29 has been mostly characterized as a tumor suppressor in breast cancer (BC). Several signaling axes, including TIMP3/STAT1/FOXO1, GATA3-miR-29b, and EZH2-miR-29b/miR-30d-LOXL4 are controlled, at least partially, by miR-29 family members to suppress proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of BC cells. In contrast, some other studies showed that miR-29 is notably elevated in the serum/tissue of BC patients and triggers migration and metastasis by targeting various genes and transcription factors such as tristetraprolin, N-myc interactor, and ten-eleven translocation 1. This disagreement can be explained by the fact that miR-29 family members have a variety of regulatory roles depending on their environment and signaling pathways. Long non-coding RNAs also can modulate miR-29 expression in BC. We summarized recent discoveries regarding the important value of the miR-29 family in BC, focusing on the effects of miR-29 up/down-regulation in different subtypes of BC. We also explored the effects of miR-29 in BC initiation and progression, invasion, and therapy resistance.
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Mir-29b in Breast Cancer: A Promising Target for Therapeutic Approaches. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12092139. [PMID: 36140539 PMCID: PMC9497770 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12092139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The miR-29 family comprises miR-29a, miR-29b, and miR-29c, and these molecules play crucial and partially overlapped functions in solid tumors, in which the different isoforms are variously de-regulated and mainly correlated with tumor suppression. miR-29b is the most expressed family member in cancer, in which it is involved in regulating gene expression at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. This review focuses on the role of miR-29b in breast cancer, in which it plays a controversial role as tumor suppressor or onco-miRNA. Here we have highlighted the dual effect of miR-29b on breast tumor features, which depend on the prevailing function of this miRNA, on the mature miR-29b evaluated, and on the breast tumor characteristics. Remarkably, the analyzed miR-29b form emerged as a crucial element in the results obtained by various research groups, as the most abundant miR-29b-3p and the less expressed miR-29b1-5p seem to play distinct roles in breast tumors with different phenotypes. Of particular interest are the data showing that miR-29b1-5p counteracts cell proliferation and migration and reduces stemness in breast tumor cells with a triple negative phenotype. Even if further studies are required to define exactly the role of each miR-29b, our review highlights its possible implication in phenotype-specific management of breast tumors.
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Law AMK, Chen J, Colino‐Sanguino Y, de la Fuente LR, Fang G, Grimes SM, Lu H, Huang RJ, Boyle ST, Venhuizen J, Castillo L, Tavakoli J, Skhinas JN, Millar EKA, Beretov J, Rossello FJ, Tipper JL, Ormandy CJ, Samuel MS, Cox TR, Martelotto L, Jin D, Valdes‐Mora F, Ji HP, Gallego‐Ortega D. ALTEN: A High-Fidelity Primary Tissue-Engineering Platform to Assess Cellular Responses Ex Vivo. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2103332. [PMID: 35611998 PMCID: PMC9313544 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202103332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
To fully investigate cellular responses to stimuli and perturbations within tissues, it is essential to replicate the complex molecular interactions within the local microenvironment of cellular niches. Here, the authors introduce Alginate-based tissue engineering (ALTEN), a biomimetic tissue platform that allows ex vivo analysis of explanted tissue biopsies. This method preserves the original characteristics of the source tissue's cellular milieu, allowing multiple and diverse cell types to be maintained over an extended period of time. As a result, ALTEN enables rapid and faithful characterization of perturbations across specific cell types within a tissue. Importantly, using single-cell genomics, this approach provides integrated cellular responses at the resolution of individual cells. ALTEN is a powerful tool for the analysis of cellular responses upon exposure to cytotoxic agents and immunomodulators. Additionally, ALTEN's scalability using automated microfluidic devices for tissue encapsulation and subsequent transport, to enable centralized high-throughput analysis of samples gathered by large-scale multicenter studies, is shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M. K. Law
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
| | - Jiamin Chen
- Division of OncologyDepartment of MedicineStanford UniversityCalifornia94305USA
| | - Yolanda Colino‐Sanguino
- Cancer Epigenetic Biology and Therapeutics LaboratoryChildren's Cancer InstituteRandwickNSW2052Australia
- School of Women's and Children's Health, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of New South Wales SydneyNSW2052Australia
| | - Laura Rodriguez de la Fuente
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
- Cancer Epigenetic Biology and Therapeutics LaboratoryChildren's Cancer InstituteRandwickNSW2052Australia
| | - Guocheng Fang
- Institute for Biomedical Materials and Devices (IBMD)Faculty of ScienceThe University of Technology SydneyUltimoNSW2007Australia
| | - Susan M. Grimes
- Division of OncologyDepartment of MedicineStanford UniversityCalifornia94305USA
| | - Hongxu Lu
- Institute for Biomedical Materials and Devices (IBMD)Faculty of ScienceThe University of Technology SydneyUltimoNSW2007Australia
| | - Robert J. Huang
- Division of Gastroenterology and HepatologyDepartment of MedicineStanford UniversityCalifornia94305USA
| | - Sarah T. Boyle
- Centre for Cancer BiologySA Pathology and University of South AustraliaAdelaideSA5000Australia
| | - Jeron Venhuizen
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
| | - Lesley Castillo
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
| | - Javad Tavakoli
- School of Biomedical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering and Information TechnologyUniversity of Technology SydneyNSW2007Australia
| | - Joanna N. Skhinas
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
| | - Ewan K. A. Millar
- Department of Anatomical PathologyNSW Health PathologySt George HospitalKogarahNSW2217Australia
- St George & Sutherland Clinical SchoolUNSW SydneyNSW2217Australia
| | - Julia Beretov
- Department of Anatomical PathologyNSW Health PathologySt George HospitalKogarahNSW2217Australia
- St George & Sutherland Clinical SchoolUNSW SydneyNSW2217Australia
| | | | - Joanne L. Tipper
- School of Biomedical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering and Information TechnologyUniversity of Technology SydneyNSW2007Australia
- School of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of LeedsLS2 9JTUK
- Department of Engineering Sciences and MathematicsLuleå University of TechnologyLuleå97187Sweden
| | - Christopher J. Ormandy
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical SchoolFaculty of MedicineUniversity of New South Wales SydneyNSW2010Australia
| | - Michael S. Samuel
- Centre for Cancer BiologySA Pathology and University of South AustraliaAdelaideSA5000Australia
- Adelaide Medical SchoolFaculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaide5000Australia
| | - Thomas R. Cox
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical SchoolFaculty of MedicineUniversity of New South Wales SydneyNSW2010Australia
| | - Luciano Martelotto
- Single Cell CoreSystems BiologyHarvard Medical SchoolHarvard UniversityMassachusetts02115USA
| | - Dayong Jin
- Institute for Biomedical Materials and Devices (IBMD)Faculty of ScienceThe University of Technology SydneyUltimoNSW2007Australia
| | - Fatima Valdes‐Mora
- Cancer Epigenetic Biology and Therapeutics LaboratoryChildren's Cancer InstituteRandwickNSW2052Australia
- School of Women's and Children's Health, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of New South Wales SydneyNSW2052Australia
| | - Hanlee P. Ji
- Division of OncologyDepartment of MedicineStanford UniversityCalifornia94305USA
| | - David Gallego‐Ortega
- The Kinghorn Cancer CentreGarvan Institute of Medical ResearchDarlinghurstNSW2010Australia
- Institute for Biomedical Materials and Devices (IBMD)Faculty of ScienceThe University of Technology SydneyUltimoNSW2007Australia
- School of Biomedical EngineeringFaculty of Engineering and Information TechnologyUniversity of Technology SydneyNSW2007Australia
- St. Vincent's Clinical SchoolFaculty of MedicineUniversity of New South Wales SydneyNSW2010Australia
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Li X, Liang Y, Lian C, Peng F, Xiao Y, He Y, Ma C, Wang Y, Zhang P, Deng Y, Su Y, Luo C, Kong X, Yang Q, Liu T, Hu G. CST6 protein and peptides inhibit breast cancer bone metastasis by suppressing CTSB activity and osteoclastogenesis. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:9821-9832. [PMID: 34815788 PMCID: PMC8581426 DOI: 10.7150/thno.62187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Bone metastasis is a frequent symptom of breast cancer and current targeted therapy has limited efficacy. Osteoclasts play critical roles to drive osteolysis and metastatic outgrowth of tumor cells in bone. Previously we identified CST6 as a secretory protein significantly downregulated in bone-metastatic breast cancer cells. Functional analysis showed that CST6 suppresses breast-to-bone metastasis in animal models. However, the functional mechanism and therapeutic potential of CST6 in bone metastasis is unknown. Methods: Using in vitro osteoclastogenesis and in vivo metastasis assays, we studied the effect and mechanism of extracellular CST6 protein in suppressing osteoclastic niches and bone metastasis of breast cancer. A number of peptides containing the functional domain of CST6 were screened to inhibit bone metastasis. The efficacy, stability and toxicity of CST6 recombinant protein and peptides were evaluated in preclinical metastasis models. Results: We show here that CST6 inhibits osteolytic bone metastasis by inhibiting osteoclastogenesis. Cancer cell-derived CST6 enters osteoclasts by endocytosis and suppresses the cysteine protease CTSB, leading to up-regulation of the CTSB hydrolytic substrate SPHK1. SPHK1 suppresses osteoclast maturation by inhibiting the RANKL-induced p38 activation. Importantly, recombinant CST6 protein effectively suppresses bone metastasis in vitro and in vivo. We further identified several peptides mimicking the function of CST6 to suppress cancer cell-induced osteoclastogenesis and bone metastasis. Pre-clinical analyses of CTS6 recombinant protein and peptides demonstrated their potentials in treatment of breast cancer bone metastasis. Conclusion: These findings reveal the CST6-CTSB-SPHK1 signaling axis in osteoclast differentiation and provide a promising approach to treat bone diseases with CST6-based peptides.
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Xu D, Ding S, Cao M, Yu X, Wang H, Qiu D, Xu Z, Bi X, Mu Z, Li K. A Pan-Cancer Analysis of Cystatin E/M Reveals Its Dual Functional Effects and Positive Regulation of Epithelial Cell in Human Tumors. Front Genet 2021; 12:733211. [PMID: 34603393 PMCID: PMC8484784 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.733211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystatin E/M (CST6), a representative cysteine protease inhibitor, plays both tumor-promoting and tumor-suppressing functions and is pursued as an epigenetically therapeutic target in special cancer types. However, a comprehensive and systematic analysis for CST6 in pan-cancer level is still lacking. In the present study, we explored the expression pattern of CST6 in multiple cancer types across ∼10,000 samples from TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas) and ∼8,000 samples from MMDs (Merged Microarray-acquired Datasets). We found that the dynamic expression alteration of CST6 was consistent with dual function in different types of cancer. In addition, we observed that the expression of CST6 was globally regulated by the DNA methylation in its promoter region. CST6 expression was positively correlated with the epithelial cell infiltration involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and proliferation. The relationship between CST6 and tumor microenvironment was also explored. In particular, we found that CST6 serves a protective function in the process of melanoma metastasis. Finally, the clinical association analysis further revealed the dual function of CST6 in cancer, and a combination of the epithelial cell infiltration and CST6 expression could predict the prognosis for SKCM patients. In summary, this first CST6 pan-cancer study improves the understanding of the dual functional effects on CST6 in different types of human cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dahua Xu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Shun Ding
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Meng Cao
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaorong Yu
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Dongqin Qiu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Zhengyang Xu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Xiaoman Bi
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Zhonglin Mu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Kongning Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Information and Engineering and Cancer Institute of the First Affiliated Hospital, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China.,College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
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Cystatin M/E (Cystatin 6): A Janus-Faced Cysteine Protease Inhibitor with Both Tumor-Suppressing and Tumor-Promoting Functions. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13081877. [PMID: 33919854 PMCID: PMC8070812 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13081877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alongside its contribution in maintaining skin homeostasis and its probable involvement in fetal and placental development, cystatin M/E (also known as cystatin 6) was first described as a tumor suppressor of breast cancer. This review aims to provide an update on cystatin M/E with particular attention paid to its role during tumorigenesis. Cystatin M/E, which is related to type 2 cystatins, displays the unique property of being a dual tight-binding inhibitor of both legumain (also known as asparagine endopeptidase) and cysteine cathepsins L, V and B, while its expression level is epigenetically regulated via the methylation of the CST6 promoter region. The tumor-suppressing role of cystatin M/E was further reported in melanoma, cervical, brain, prostate, gastric and renal cancers, and cystatin M/E was proposed as a biomarker of prognostic significance. Contrariwise, cystatin M/E could have an antagonistic function, acting as a tumor promoter (e.g., oral, pancreatic cancer, thyroid and hepatocellular carcinoma). Taking into account these apparently divergent functions, there is an urgent need to decipher the molecular and cellular regulatory mechanisms of the expression and activity of cystatin M/E associated with the safeguarding homeostasis of the proteolytic balance as well as its imbalance in cancer.
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7
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Bao-Caamano A, Rodriguez-Casanova A, Diaz-Lagares A. Epigenetics of Circulating Tumor Cells in Breast Cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1220:117-134. [PMID: 32304083 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-35805-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Liquid biopsy based on the analysis of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) has emerged as an important field of research. Molecular characterization of CTCs can provide insights into cancer biology and biomarkers for the clinic, representing a non-invasive powerful tool for monitoring breast cancer metastasis and predict the therapeutic response. Epigenetic mechanisms play a key role in the control of gene expression and their alteration contributes to cancer development and progression. These epigenetic modifications in CTCs have been described mainly related to modifications of the DNA methylation pattern and changes in the expression profile of noncoding RNAs. Here we summarize the recent findings on the epigenetic characterization of CTCs in breast cancer and their clinical value as tumor biomarkers, and discuss challenges and opportunities in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida Bao-Caamano
- Cancer Epigenomics, Translational Medical Oncology (Oncomet), Health Research Institute of Santiago (IDIS), University Clinical Hospital of Santiago (CHUS/SERGAS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Aitor Rodriguez-Casanova
- Cancer Epigenomics, Translational Medical Oncology (Oncomet), Health Research Institute of Santiago (IDIS), University Clinical Hospital of Santiago (CHUS/SERGAS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain.,Roche-Chus Joint Unit, Translational Medical Oncology Group (Oncomet), Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Angel Diaz-Lagares
- Cancer Epigenomics, Translational Medical Oncology (Oncomet), Health Research Institute of Santiago (IDIS), University Clinical Hospital of Santiago (CHUS/SERGAS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain.
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John Mary DJS, Sikarwar G, Kumar A, Limaye AM. Interplay of ERα binding and DNA methylation in the intron-2 determines the expression and estrogen regulation of cystatin A in breast cancer cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2020; 504:110701. [PMID: 31926189 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.110701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Despite advances in early detection and treatment, invasion and metastasis of breast tumors remains a major hurdle. Cystatin A (CSTA, also called stefin A), an estrogen-regulated gene in breast cancer cells, is an inhibitor of cysteine cathepsins, and a purported tumor suppressor. Loss of CSTA expression in breast tumors evidently shifts the balance in favor of cysteine cathepsins, thereby promoting extracellular matrix remodeling, tumor invasion and metastasis. However, the underlying mechanism behind the loss of CSTA expression in breast tumors is not known. Here, we have analyzed CSTA expression, and methylation of upstream and intron-2 CpG sites within the CSTA locus in human breast cancer cell lines and breast tumors of the TCGA cohort. Results showed an inverse relationship between expression and methylation. Sequence analysis revealed a potential estrogen response element (ERE) in the intron-2. Analysis of ChIP-seq data (ERP000380) and our own ChIP experiments showed that 17β-estradiol (E2) enhanced ERα binding to this ERE in MCF-7 cells. This ERE was located amidst the differentially methylated intron-2 CpG sites, which provoked us to examine the possible conflict between estrogen-regulation of CSTA and DNA methylation in the intron-2. We analyzed the expression of CSTA and its regulation by E2 in MDA-MB-231 and T47D cells subjected to global demethylation by 5-azacytidine (5-aza). 5-aza significantly demethylated intron-2 CpGs, and enhanced estrogen-induced ERα occupancy at the intron-2 ERE, leading to restoration of estrogen-regulation. Taken together, our results indicate that DNA methylation-dependent silencing could play a significant role in the loss of CSTA expression in breast tumors. The potential of DNA methylation as an indicator of CSTA expression or as a marker of tumor progression can be explored in future investigations. Furthermore, our results indicate the convergence of ERα-mediated estrogen regulation and DNA methylation in the intron-2, thereby offering a novel context to understand the role of estrogen-ERα signaling axis in breast tumor invasion and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dixcy Jaba Sheeba John Mary
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Girija Sikarwar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Anil Mukund Limaye
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India.
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Zhou X, Wang X, Huang K, Liao X, Yang C, Yu T, Liu J, Han C, Zhu G, Su H, Qin W, Han Q, Liu Z, Huang J, Gong Y, Ye X, Peng T. Investigation of the clinical significance and prospective molecular mechanisms of cystatin genes in patients with hepatitis B virus‑related hepatocellular carcinoma. Oncol Rep 2019; 42:189-201. [PMID: 31115549 PMCID: PMC6549101 DOI: 10.3892/or.2019.7154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the clinical significance and prospective molecular mechanism of cystatin (CST) genes in patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The role of CST genes in the molecular mechanism of HCC was revealed through bioinformatics analysis. The clinical significance of CST genes was investigated using GSE14520-derived data from patients with HBV-related HCC. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used to identify pathways in which the CST genes were enriched, as well as the association between these pathways and HCC. The expression levels of CST1, CST2, CST5, CSTA and CSTB genes were higher in HCC tissue compared with in normal tissue; conversely, CST3 and CST7 were reduced in HCC tissue. Subsequent receiver operating characteristic analysis of the CST genes demonstrated that CST7 and CSTB genes may function as potential diagnostic markers for HCC. Furthermore, the expression levels of CST6 and CST7 were strongly associated with recurrence-free survival and overall survival of patients with HBV-related HCC. GSEA of the CST genes revealed that CST7 was significantly enriched in tumor evasion and tolerogenicity, cancer progenitors, liver cancer late recurrence, liver cancer progression and several liver cancer subclasses. In addition, CST genes demonstrated homology in terms of protein structure and were revealed to be strongly co-expressed. The present findings suggested that CST7 and CSTB genes may serve as potential prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhou
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Xiangkun Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Ketuan Huang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Xiwen Liao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Chengkun Yang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Tingdong Yu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Junqi Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Chuangye Han
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Guangzhi Zhu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Hao Su
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Wei Qin
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Quanfa Han
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Zhengqian Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Jianlv Huang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Yizhen Gong
- Department of Colorectal and Anal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Xinping Ye
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
| | - Tao Peng
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 530021, P.R. China
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Cystatins in cancer progression: More than just cathepsin inhibitors. Biochimie 2019; 166:233-250. [PMID: 31071357 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cystatins are endogenous and reversible inhibitors of cysteine peptidases that are important players in cancer progression. Besides their primary role as regulators of cysteine peptidase activity, cystatins are involved in cancer development and progression through proteolysis-independent mechanisms. Mechanistic studies of cystatin function revealed that they affect all stages of cancer progression including tumor growth, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. Recently, the involvement of cystatins in the antitumor immune responses was reported. In this review, we discuss molecular mechanisms and clinical aspects of cystatins in cancer. Altered expression of cystatins in cancer resulting in harmful excessive cysteine peptidase activity has been a subject of several studies in order to find correlations with clinical outcome and therapy response. However, involvement in anti-tumor immune response and signaling cascades leading to cancer progression designates cystatins as possible targets for development of new anti-tumor drugs.
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Abstract
Cathepsins (CTS) are mainly lysosomal acid hydrolases extensively involved in the prognosis of different diseases, and having a distinct role in tumor progression by regulating cell proliferation, autophagy, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. As all these processes conjunctively lead to cancer progression, their site-specific regulation might be beneficial for cancer treatment. CTS regulate activation of the proteolytic cascade and protein turnover, while extracellular CTS is involved in promoting extracellular matrix degradation and angiogenesis, thereby stimulating invasion and metastasis. Despite cancer regulation, the involvement of CTS in cellular adaptation toward chemotherapy and radiotherapy augments their therapeutic potential. However, lysosomal permeabilization mediated cytosolic translocation of CTS induces programmed cell death. This complex behavior of CTS generates the need to discuss the different aspects of CTS associated with cancer regulation. In this review, we mainly focused on the significance of each cathepsin in cancer signaling and their targeting which would provide noteworthy information in the context of cancer biology and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejinder Pal Khaket
- Department of Biotechnology, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea
| | - Taeg Kyu Kwon
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sun Chul Kang
- Department of Biotechnology, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 38453, Republic of Korea.
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Sunakawa Y, Mogushi K, Lenz HJ, Zhang W, Tsuji A, Takahashi T, Denda T, Shimada K, Kochi M, Nakamura M, Kotaka M, Segawa Y, Tanioka H, Negoro Y, Moran M, Astrow SH, Hsiang J, Stephens C, Fujii M, Ichikawa W. Tumor Sidedness and Enriched Gene Groups for Efficacy of First-line Cetuximab Treatment in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. Mol Cancer Ther 2018; 17:2788-2795. [PMID: 30275242 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-18-0694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Molecular differences in tumor locations may contribute to the sidedness-specific response to cetuximab in metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC). We investigated genes associated with the response to cetuximab treatment depending on tumor sidedness. Our study included 77 patients with mCRC (13/63, right/left) with KRAS exon 2 wild-type tumors from phase II trials of first-line therapy with cetuximab. Expression levels of 2,551 genes were measured in tissue samples by HTG EdgeSeq Oncology Biomarker Panel. Univariate Cox regression analysis using log2 values of counts per million (CPM) was conducted in each sidedness to assess associations with clinical outcomes, and to define the optimal cut-off point for clinically significant genes. In addition, a gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed to identify significant gene pathways in each sidedness. Sixty-nine patients were assessable for gene expression data. Overexpression of BECN1 [log2(CPM) ≥ 6.8] was associated with favorable survival, regardless of tumor sidedness. High expression of NOTCH1 [log2(CPM) ≥ 7.5] predicted significantly longer progression-free survival (PFS; median 14.7 vs. 11.1 months, HR 0.43, P = 0.01) and overall survival (OS; median 42.8 vs. 26.5 months, HR 0.35, P = 0.01) in left side but not in right side. The GSEA showed that regulation of DNA replication gene set correlated with favorable survival in the left, whereas the subcellular component and leukocyte migration gene sets were associated with good survival in the right. In conclusion, genes contributing to the efficacy of cetuximab treatment may differ according to the sidedness in mCRC. NOTCH1 may potentially discriminate favorable responders to cetuximab in patients with left-sided tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Sunakawa
- Department of Clinical Oncology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Miyamae-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Kaoru Mogushi
- Diagnostics and Therapeutics of Intractable Diseases, Intractable Disease Research Center, Juntendo University Graduate School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Heinz-Josef Lenz
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Wu Zhang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Akihito Tsuji
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Kagawa University Faculty of Medicine Cancer Center, Kagawa University Hospital, Kita, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Takehiro Takahashi
- Division of Medical Oncology, Showa University Fujigaoka Hospital, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tadamichi Denda
- Division of Gastroenterology, Chiba Cancer Center, Chuo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Ken Shimada
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Showa University Koto Toyosu Hospital, Koto, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mitsugu Kochi
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Nihon University School of Medicine, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masato Nakamura
- Aizawa Comprehensive Cancer Center, Aizawa Hospital, Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan
| | - Masahito Kotaka
- Gastrointestinal Cancer Center, Sano Hospital, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Segawa
- Department of Medical Oncology, International Medical Center, Saitama Medical University, Saitama, Hidaka, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Tanioka
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki City, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yuji Negoro
- Department of Gastroenterology, Kochi Health Sciences Center, Kochi, Japan
| | - Miriana Moran
- R&D and Pharmaceutical Services, Cancer Genetics, Inc., Los Angeles, California
| | | | - Jack Hsiang
- R&D and Pharmaceutical Services, Cancer Genetics, Inc., Los Angeles, California
| | - Craig Stephens
- R&D and Pharmaceutical Services, Cancer Genetics, Inc., Los Angeles, California
| | - Masashi Fujii
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Nihon University School of Medicine, Itabashi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Wataru Ichikawa
- Division of Medical Oncology, Showa University Fujigaoka Hospital, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
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13
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Johnstone CN, Pattison AD, Gorringe KL, Harrison PF, Powell DR, Lock P, Baloyan D, Ernst M, Stewart AG, Beilharz TH, Anderson RL. Functional and genomic characterisation of a xenograft model system for the study of metastasis in triple-negative breast cancer. Dis Model Mech 2018; 11:dmm032250. [PMID: 29720474 PMCID: PMC5992606 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.032250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) represents 10-20% of all human ductal adenocarcinomas and has a poor prognosis relative to other subtypes. Hence, new molecular targets for therapeutic intervention are necessary. Analyses of panels of human or mouse cancer lines derived from the same individual that differ in their cellular phenotypes but not in genetic background have been instrumental in defining the molecular players that drive the various hallmarks of cancer. To determine the molecular regulators of metastasis in TNBC, we completed a rigorous in vitro and in vivo characterisation of four populations of the MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer line ranging in aggressiveness from non-metastatic to spontaneously metastatic to lung, liver, spleen and lymph node. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array analyses and genome-wide mRNA expression profiles of tumour cells isolated from orthotopic mammary xenografts were compared between the four lines to define both cell autonomous pathways and genes associated with metastatic proclivity. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) demonstrated an unexpected association between both ribosome biogenesis and mRNA metabolism and metastatic capacity. Differentially expressed genes or families of related genes were allocated to one of four categories, associated with either metastatic initiation (e.g. CTSC, ENG, BMP2), metastatic virulence (e.g. ADAMTS1, TIE1), metastatic suppression (e.g. CST1, CST2, CST4, CST6, SCNNA1, BMP4) or metastatic avirulence (e.g. CD74). Collectively, this model system based on MDA-MB-231 cells should be useful for the assessment of gene function in the metastatic cascade and also for the testing of novel experimental therapeutics for the treatment of TNBC.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron N Johnstone
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
- School of Cancer Medicine, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Andrew D Pattison
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Kylie L Gorringe
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
| | - Paul F Harrison
- Monash Bioinformatics Platform, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - David R Powell
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Monash Bioinformatics Platform, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Peter Lock
- LIMS Bioimaging Facility, La Trobe Institute for Molecular Science, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
| | - David Baloyan
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
| | - Matthias Ernst
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
- School of Cancer Medicine, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
| | - Alastair G Stewart
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Traude H Beilharz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Robin L Anderson
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Victorian Comprehensive Cancer Centre, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia
- Department of Pathology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
- School of Cancer Medicine, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
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14
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Targeting the Epigenome as a Novel Therapeutic Approach for Breast Cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1026:287-313. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-6020-5_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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15
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Wallin H, Apelqvist J, Andersson F, Ekström U, Abrahamson M. Low-level internalization of cystatin E/M affects legumain activity and migration of melanoma cells. J Biol Chem 2017. [PMID: 28630039 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.776138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The ratio between proteases and their inhibitors is unbalanced in cancer. The cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin C is internalized by some cancer cells, which affects cellular properties. Here we aimed to investigate if uptake of cystatin C and the related inhibitor cystatin E/M occur in melanoma cell lines and to evaluate to what extent the uptake affects the legumain activity that is typically increased in melanoma. First we studied the basic expression, secretion, and intracellular content of all type 2 cystatins as well as expression and activity of their possible target enzymes legumain and cathepsin B in MDA-MB-435S, A375, and C8161 melanoma cells. Legumain activity was measureable in all cell lines, and of the potential legumain inhibitors, cystatin C, E/M, and F, cystatin C was the one mainly produced. All cells internalized cystatin C added to culture media, leading to increased intracellular cystatin C levels by 120-200%. Cystatin E/M was internalized as well but at a modest rate. The effects on intracellular legumain activity were nevertheless pronounced, probably because the cells lacked this inhibitor, and its affinity for legumain is 100-fold higher than that of cystatin C. Likewise, the low-degree uptake resulted in reduced migration and invasion of A375 cells in Matrigel to an extent comparable with the W106F variant of cystatin C with optimal uptake properties and resulting in much higher intracellular levels. Thus, cystatin E/M appears to be a good candidate to efficiently down-regulate the increased legumain activity, possibly important for the malignant phenotype of melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Wallin
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Jenny Apelqvist
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Freddi Andersson
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Ulf Ekström
- From the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
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16
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Cystatin C deficiency suppresses tumor growth in a breast cancer model through decreased proliferation of tumor cells. Oncotarget 2017; 8:73793-73809. [PMID: 29088746 PMCID: PMC5650301 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are proteases that, in addition to their important physiological functions, have been associated with multiple pathologies, including cancer. Cystatin C (CstC) is a major endogenous inhibitor that regulates the extracellular activity of cysteine cathepsins. We investigated the role of cystatin C in mammary cancer using CstC knockout mice and a mouse model of breast cancer induced by expression of the polyoma middle T oncoprotein (PyMT) in the mammary epithelium. We showed that the ablation of CstC reduced the rate of mammary tumor growth. Notably, a decrease in the proliferation of CstC knockout PyMT tumor cells was demonstrated ex vivo and in vitro, indicating a role for this protease inhibitor in signaling pathways that control cell proliferation. An increase in phosphorylated p-38 was observed in CstC knockout tumors, suggesting a novel function for cystatin C in cancer development, independent of the TGF-β pathway. Moreover, proteomic analysis of the CstC wild-type and knockout PyMT primary cell secretomes revealed a decrease in the levels of 14-3-3 proteins in the secretome of knock-out cells, suggesting a novel link between cysteine cathepsins, cystatin C and 14-3-3 proteins in tumorigenesis, calling for further investigations.
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17
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Azimi A, Kaufman KL, Ali M, Kossard S, Fernandez-Penas P. In Silico Analysis Validates Proteomic Findings of Formalin-fixed Paraffin Embedded Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma Tissue. Cancer Genomics Proteomics 2017; 13:453-465. [PMID: 27807068 DOI: 10.21873/cgp.20008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is a common type of skin cancer but there are no comprehensive proteomic studies on this entity. MATERIALS AND METHODS We employed liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) cSCC material to study the tumor and normal skin tissue proteomes. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) was used to interpret the role of altered proteins in cSCC pathophysiology. Results were validated using the Human Protein Atlas and Oncomine database in silico. RESULTS Of 1,310 unique proteins identified, expression of an average of 144 and 88 proteins were significantly (p<0.05) increased and decreased, respectively, in the tumor samples compared to their normal counterparts. IPA analysis revealed disruptions in proteins associated with cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration. In silico analysis confirmed that proteins corresponding to 12 antibodies, and genes corresponding to 18 proteins were differentially expressed between the two categories, validating our proteomic measurements. CONCLUSION Label-free MS-based proteomics is useful for analyzing FFPE cSCC tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Azimi
- Department of Dermatology, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Kimberley L Kaufman
- School of Molecular Bioscience, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.,Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Marina Ali
- Department of Dermatology, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
| | - Steven Kossard
- Dermatopathology, Skin and Cancer Foundation Australia, Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia
| | - Pablo Fernandez-Penas
- Department of Dermatology, Westmead Hospital, The University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
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18
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Masood S, El-Gabry E, Zhang C, Wang Z. The potential of identification of a malignancy-associated biomarker in breast cancer diagnosis and research: hTERT gene DNA methylation. Diagn Cytopathol 2016; 44:670-5. [PMID: 27229911 DOI: 10.1002/dc.23505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND DNA hypermethylation has been documented to be prominent at a CpG island rich region about 600 bp upstream the transcription start site of the hTERT gene using qualitative methylation specific PCR on DNA isolated from tumor cell lines. In order to assess the potential significance of this biomarker in breast cancer research and diagnosis, we explored if such findings are reproducible on surgically resected fresh breast tumor cells. METHODS Using quantitative pyrosequencing technology, we investigated and present methylation status of four CpG islands of this region in a cohort of 77 invasive breast carcinomas using normal breast tissue as controls. RESULTS Globally, a significant hypermethylation in tumor cells was observed in the four CpG islands as a sum, in comparison to methylation of the normal breast tissue. Individually, certain CpG islands displayed methylation greater than 50% in about 3/4 of the 77 breast cancers, but in none of the normal breast tissue. Our results highlight the value of DNA hypermethylation in the -600 bp region of the hTERT gene as a potential marker for breast cancer diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS We believe that integration of this novel, malignancy-associated molecular testing with morphology is of significant value in the accurate interpretation of small tumor sample size obtained via fine needle aspiration biopsy, ductal lavage, and nipple fluid aspirates both in clinical practice and in breast cancer research. Diagn. Cytopathol. 2016;44:670-675. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahla Masood
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine at Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Ehab El-Gabry
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine at Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Chuhua Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine at Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida
| | - Zhiqianq Wang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine at Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida
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19
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Lianidou ES. Gene expression profiling and DNA methylation analyses of CTCs. Mol Oncol 2016; 10:431-42. [PMID: 26880168 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2016.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A variety of molecular assays have been developed for CTCs detection and molecular characterization. Molecular assays are based on the nucleic acid analysis in CTCs and are based on total RNA isolation and subsequent mRNA quantification of specific genes, or isolation of genomic DNA that can be for DNA methylation studies and mutation analysis. This review is mainly focused on gene expression and methylation studies in CTCs in various types of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evi S Lianidou
- Analysis of Circulating Tumor Cells Lab, Lab of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, 15771, Greece.
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20
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Chernyavskaya Y, Kent B, Sadler KC. Zebrafish Discoveries in Cancer Epigenetics. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 916:169-97. [PMID: 27165354 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-30654-4_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The cancer epigenome is fundamentally different than that of normal cells. How these differences arise in and contribute to carcinogenesis is not known, and studies using model organisms such as zebrafish provide an opportunity to address these important questions. Modifications of histones and DNA comprise the complex epigenome, and these influence chromatin structure, genome stability and gene expression, all of which are fundamental to the cellular changes that cause cancer. The cancer genome atlas covers the wide spectrum of genetic changes associated with nearly every cancer type, however, this catalog is currently uni-dimensional. As the pattern of epigenetic marks and chromatin structure in cancer cells is described and overlaid on the mutational landscape, the map of the cancer genome becomes multi-dimensional and highly complex. Two major questions remain in the field: (1) how the epigenome becomes repatterned in cancer and (2) which of these changes are cancer-causing. Zebrafish provide a tractable in vivo system to monitor the epigenome during transformation and to identify epigenetic drivers of cancer. In this chapter, we review principles of cancer epigenetics and discuss recent work using zebrafish whereby epigenetic modifiers were established as cancer driver genes, thus providing novel insights into the mechanisms of epigenetic reprogramming in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yelena Chernyavskaya
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Division of Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Brandon Kent
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Division of Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- School of Biomedical Science, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Kirsten C Sadler
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Division of Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- School of Biomedical Science, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1020, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Biology Program, New York University Abu Dhabi, Saadiyat Campus, 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
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21
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Pixberg CF, Schulz WA, Stoecklein NH, Neves RPL. Characterization of DNA Methylation in Circulating Tumor Cells. Genes (Basel) 2015; 6:1053-75. [PMID: 26506390 PMCID: PMC4690028 DOI: 10.3390/genes6041053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epigenetics contributes to molecular mechanisms leading to tumor cell transformation and systemic progression of cancer. However, the dynamics of epigenetic remodeling during metastasis remains unexplored. In this context, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) might enable a direct insight into epigenetic mechanisms relevant for metastasis by providing direct access to systemic cancer. CTCs can be used as prognostic markers in cancer patients and are regarded as potential metastatic precursor cells. However, despite substantial technical progress, the detection and molecular characterization of CTCs remain challenging, in particular the analysis of DNA methylation. As recent studies have started to address the epigenetic state of CTCs, we discuss here the potential of such investigations to elucidate mechanisms of metastasis and to develop tumor biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantin F Pixberg
- Department of General, Visceral and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang A Schulz
- Department of Urology, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Nikolas H Stoecklein
- Department of General, Visceral and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Rui P L Neves
- Department of General, Visceral and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital and Medical Faculty of the Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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22
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D'Costa ZC, Higgins C, Ong CW, Irwin GW, Boyle D, McArt DG, McCloskey K, Buckley NE, Crawford NT, Thiagarajan L, Murray JT, Kennedy RD, Mulligan KA, Harkin DP, Waugh DJJ, Scott CJ, Salto-Tellez M, Williams R, Mullan PB. TBX2 represses CST6 resulting in uncontrolled legumain activity to sustain breast cancer proliferation: a novel cancer-selective target pathway with therapeutic opportunities. Oncotarget 2015; 5:1609-20. [PMID: 24742492 PMCID: PMC4057604 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.1707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
TBX2 is an oncogenic transcription factor known to drive breast cancer proliferation. We have identified the cysteine protease inhibitor Cystatin 6 (CST6) as a consistently repressed TBX2 target gene, co-repressed through a mechanism involving Early Growth Response 1 (EGR1). Exogenous expression of CST6 in TBX2-expressing breast cancer cells resulted in significant apoptosis whilst non-tumorigenic breast cells remained unaffected. CST6 is an important tumor suppressor in multiple tissues, acting as a dual protease inhibitor of both papain-like cathepsins and asparaginyl endopeptidases (AEPs) such as Legumain (LGMN). Mutation of the CST6 LGMN-inhibitory domain completely abrogated its ability to induce apoptosis in TBX2-expressing breast cancer cells, whilst mutation of the cathepsin-inhibitory domain or treatment with a pan-cathepsin inhibitor had no effect, suggesting that LGMN is the key oncogenic driver enzyme. LGMN activity assays confirmed the observed growth inhibitory effects were consistent with CST6 inhibition of LGMN. Knockdown of LGMN and the only other known AEP enzyme (GPI8) by siRNA confirmed that LGMN was the enzyme responsible for maintaining breast cancer proliferation. CST6 did not require secretion or glycosylation to elicit its cell killing effects, suggesting an intracellular mode of action. Finally, we show that TBX2 and CST6 displayed reciprocal expression in a cohort of primary breast cancers with increased TBX2 expression associating with increased metastases. We have also noted that tumors with altered TBX2/CST6 expression show poor overall survival. This novel TBX2-CST6-LGMN signaling pathway, therefore, represents an exciting opportunity for the development of novel therapies to target TBX2 driven breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zenobia C D'Costa
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
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23
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Masood S. Development of a novel approach for breast cancer prediction and early detection using minimally invasive procedures and molecular analysis: how cytomorphology became a breast cancer risk predictor. Breast J 2015; 21:82-96. [PMID: 25556774 DOI: 10.1111/tbj.12362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
With enhanced public awareness, advances in breast imaging, and emphasis on early breast cancer detection and prevention, more women are seeking consultation to assess the status of their breast health. Risk assessment has become an integral part of established multi-disciplinary breast care, and breast cancer risk reduction interventions have received a great deal of attention. Similarly, interest in identification of high-risk individuals has increased significantly. Atypical proliferative changes in breast epithelial cells are ranked high among various known breast cancer risk factors and, in recent years, have been the subject of several investigations. Breast tissue and fluid in the ductal system provide a rich source of cells and biomarkers that have the potential to aid in the assessment of short-term risk of breast cancer development, and assess responses to interventional prevention efforts. There are three minimally invasive procedures currently being utilized to sample breast tissue in asymptomatic high-risk individuals. These procedures are: fine-needle aspiration biopsy, nipple aspiration fluid, and ductal lavage. In this review article, the merits and limitations of each procedure are presented, and the contribution of cytomorphology and molecular analysis in breast cancer prediction is highlighted. In addition, the role of Masood Cytology Index as a surrogate endpoint biomarker in chemopreventative trials is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahla Masood
- Department of Pathology, University of Florida College of Medicine - Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida
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24
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Ai L, Kim WJ, Alpay M, Tang M, Pardo CE, Hatakeyama S, May WS, Kladde MP, Heldermon CD, Siegel EM, Brown KD. TRIM29 suppresses TWIST1 and invasive breast cancer behavior. Cancer Res 2014; 74:4875-87. [PMID: 24950909 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-3579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
TRIM29 (ATDC) exhibits a contextual function in cancer, but seems to exert a tumor-suppressor role in breast cancer. Here, we show that TRIM29 is often silenced in primary breast tumors and cultured tumor cells as a result of aberrant gene hypermethylation. RNAi-mediated silencing of TRIM29 in breast tumor cells increased their motility, invasiveness, and proliferation in a manner associated with increased expression of mesenchymal markers (N-cadherin and vimentin), decreased expression of epithelial markers (E-cadherin and EpCAM), and increased expression and activity of the oncogenic transcription factor TWIST1, an important driver of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Functional investigations revealed an inverse relationship in the expression of TRIM29 and TWIST1, suggesting the existence of a negative regulatory feedback loop. In support of this relationship, we found that TWIST1 inhibited TRIM29 promoter activity through direct binding to a region containing a cluster of consensus E-box elements, arguing that TWIST1 transcriptionally represses TRIM29 expression. Analysis of a public breast cancer gene-expression database indicated that reduced TRIM29 expression was associated with reduced relapse-free survival, increased tumor size, grade, and metastatic characteristics. Taken together, our results suggest that TRIM29 acts as a tumor suppressor in breast cancer through its ability to inhibit TWIST1 and suppress EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingbao Ai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida.
| | - Wan-Ju Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Merve Alpay
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Ming Tang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Carolina E Pardo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Shigetsugu Hatakeyama
- Department of Biochemistry, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - W Stratford May
- UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. Department of Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Michael P Kladde
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Coy D Heldermon
- UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. Department of Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Erin M Siegel
- Division of Population Sciences, Cancer Epidemiology Program, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida. Department of Anatomic Pathology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, Florida
| | - Kevin D Brown
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida. UF-Health Cancer Center, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida.
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SANDHU RUPNINDER, RIVENBARK ASHLEYG, MACKLER RANDIM, LIVASY CHADA, COLEMAN WILLIAMB. Dysregulation of microRNA expression drives aberrant DNA hypermethylation in basal-like breast cancer. Int J Oncol 2014; 44:563-72. [PMID: 24297604 PMCID: PMC3898722 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2013.2197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Basal-like breast cancers frequently express aberrant DNA hypermethylation associated with concurrent silencing of specific genes secondary to DNMT3b overexpression and DNMT hyperactivity. DNMT3b is known to be post-transcriptionally regulated by microRNAs. The objective of the current study was to determine the role of microRNA dysregulation in the molecular mechanism governing DNMT3b overexpression in primary breast cancers that express aberrant DNA hypermethylation. The expression of microRNAs (miRs) that regulate (miR-29a, miR-29b, miR-29c, miR-148a and miR-148b) or are predicted to regulate DNMT3b (miR‑26a, miR-26b, miR-203 and miR-222) were evaluated among 70 primary breast cancers (36 luminal A-like, 13 luminal B-like, 5 HER2‑enriched, 16 basal-like) and 18 normal mammoplasty tissues. Significantly reduced expression of miR-29c distinguished basal-like breast cancers from other breast cancer molecular subtypes. The expression of aberrant DNA hypermethylation was determined in a subset of 33 breast cancers (6 luminal A-like, 6 luminal B-like, 5 HER2-enriched and 16 basal-like) through examination of methylation‑sensitive biomarker gene expression (CEACAM6, CDH1, CST6, ESR1, GNA11, MUC1, MYB, TFF3 and SCNN1A), 11/33 (33%) cancers exhibited aberrant DNA hypermethylation including 9/16 (56%) basal-like cancers, but only 2/17 (12%) non-basal-like cancers (luminal A-like, n=1; HER2-enriched, n=1). Breast cancers with aberrant DNA hypermethylation express diminished levels of miR-29a, miR-29b, miR-26a, miR-26b, miR-148a and miR-148b compared to cancers lacking aberrant DNA hypermethylation. A total of 7/9 (78%) basal-like breast cancers with aberrant DNA hypermethylation exhibit diminished levels of ≥6 regulatory miRs. The results show that i) reduced expression of miR-29c is characteristic of basal-like breast cancers, ii) miR and methylation-sensitive gene expression patterns identify two subsets of basal-like breast cancers, and iii) the subset of basal-like breast cancers with reduced expression of multiple regulatory miRs express aberrant DNA hypermethylation. Together, these findings strongly suggest that the molecular mechanism governing the DNMT3b-mediated aberrant DNA hypermethylation in primary breast cancer involves the loss of post-transcriptional regulation of DNMT3b by regulatory miRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- RUPNINDER SANDHU
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599,
USA
| | - ASHLEY G. RIVENBARK
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599,
USA
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599,
USA
| | - RANDI M. MACKLER
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599,
USA
| | - CHAD A. LIVASY
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599,
USA
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599,
USA
| | - WILLIAM B. COLEMAN
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599,
USA
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Tessema M, Yingling CM, Liu Y, Tellez CS, Van Neste L, Baylin SS, Belinsky SA. Genome-wide unmasking of epigenetically silenced genes in lung adenocarcinoma from smokers and never smokers. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35:1248-57. [PMID: 24398667 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgt494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer in never smokers (NS) shows striking demographic, clinicopathological and molecular distinctions from the disease in smokers (S). Studies on selected genetic and epigenetic alterations in lung cancer identified that the frequency and profile of some abnormalities significantly differ by smoking status. This study compared the transcriptome of lung adenocarcinoma cell lines derived from S (n = 3) and NS (n = 3) each treated with vehicle (control), histone deacetylation inhibitor (trichostatin A) or DNA methylation inhibitor (5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine). Among 122 genes reexpressed following 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine but not trichostatin A treatment in two or more cell lines (including 32 genes in S-only and 12 NS-only), methylation was validated for 80% (98/122 genes). After methylation analysis of 20 normal tissue samples and 14 additional non-small cell lung cancer cell lines (total 20), 39 genes frequently methylated in normal (>20%, 4/20) and 21 genes rarely methylated in non-small cell lung cancer (≤10%, 2/20) were excluded. The prevalence for methylation of the remaining 38 genes in lung adenocarcinomas from S (n = 97) and NS (n = 75) ranged from 8-89% and significantly differs between S and NS for CPEB1, CST6, EMILIN2, LAYN and MARVELD3 (P < 0.05). Furthermore, methylation of EMILIN2, ROBO3 and IGDCC4 was more prevalent in advanced (Stage II-IV, n = 61) than early (Stage I, n = 110) tumors. Knockdown of MARVELD3, one of the novel epigenetically silenced genes, by small interfering RNA significantly reduced anchorage-independent growth of lung cancer cells (P < 0.001). Collectively, this study has identified multiple, novel, epigenetically silenced genes in lung cancer and provides invaluable resources for the development of diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathewos Tessema
- Department of Lung Cancer, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA, MDxHealth Inc., Irvine, CA 92618, USA, Department of Pathology, GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands and Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Christin M Yingling
- Department of Lung Cancer, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA, MDxHealth Inc., Irvine, CA 92618, USA, Department of Pathology, GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands and Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Yushi Liu
- Department of Lung Cancer, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA, MDxHealth Inc., Irvine, CA 92618, USA, Department of Pathology, GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands and Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Carmen S Tellez
- Department of Lung Cancer, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA, MDxHealth Inc., Irvine, CA 92618, USA, Department of Pathology, GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands and Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Leander Van Neste
- MDxHealth Inc., Irvine, CA 92618, USA, Department of Pathology, GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands and
| | - Stephen S Baylin
- Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Steven A Belinsky
- Department of Lung Cancer, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA, MDxHealth Inc., Irvine, CA 92618, USA, Department of Pathology, GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands and Department of Oncology, The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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Roll JD, Rivenbark AG, Sandhu R, Parker JS, Jones WD, Carey LA, Livasy CA, Coleman WB. Dysregulation of the epigenome in triple-negative breast cancers: basal-like and claudin-low breast cancers express aberrant DNA hypermethylation. Exp Mol Pathol 2013; 95:276-87. [PMID: 24045095 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A subset of human breast cancer cell lines exhibits aberrant DNA hypermethylation that is characterized by hyperactivity of the DNA methyltransferase enzymes, overexpression of DNMT3b, and concurrent methylation-dependent silencing of numerous epigenetic biomarker genes. The objective of this study was to determine if this aberrant DNA hypermethylation (i) is found in primary breast cancers, (ii) is associated with specific breast cancer molecular subtypes, and (iii) influences patient outcomes. Analysis of epigenetic biomarker genes (CDH1, CEACAM6, CST6, ESR1, GNA11, MUC1, MYB, SCNN1A, and TFF3) identified a gene expression signature characterized by reduced expression levels or loss of expression among a cohort of primary breast cancers. The breast cancers that express this gene expression signature are enriched for triple-negative subtypes - basal-like and claudin-low breast cancers. Methylation analysis of primary breast cancers showed extensive promoter hypermethylation of epigenetic biomarker genes among triple-negative breast cancers, compared to other breast cancer subclasses where promoter hypermethylation events were less frequent. Furthermore, triple-negative breast cancers either did not express or expressed significantly reduced levels of protein corresponding to methylation-sensitive biomarker gene products. Together, these findings suggest strongly that loss of epigenetic biomarker gene expression is frequently associated with gene promoter hypermethylation events. We propose that aberrant DNA hypermethylation is a common characteristic of triple-negative breast cancers and may represent a fundamental biological property of basal-like and claudin-low breast cancers. Kaplan-Meier analysis of relapse-free survival revealed a survival disadvantage for patients with breast cancers that exhibit aberrant DNA hypermethylation. Identification of this distinguishing trait among triple-negative breast cancers forms the basis for development of new rational therapies that target the epigenome in patients with basal-like and claudin-low breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Devon Roll
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA; UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA.
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Wood SL, Westbrook JA, Brown JE. Omic-profiling in breast cancer metastasis to bone: implications for mechanisms, biomarkers and treatment. Cancer Treat Rev 2013; 40:139-52. [PMID: 23958309 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Despite well-recognised advances in breast cancer treatment, there remain substantial numbers of patients who develop metastatic disease, of which up to 70% involves spread to bone, resulting in skeletal complications which have a major negative impact on mortality and quality of life. Bisphosphonates and newer bone-targeted agents have reduced the prevalence of skeletal complications, yet there remains significant unmet clinical need, particularly for the development of more specific therapies for the prevention and treatment of metastatic bone disease, for the prediction of risk of its development in individual patients and for the prediction of response to treatments. Modern 'omic' strategies can potentially make a major contribution to meeting this need. Technological advances in the field of nucleic acid sequencing, mass spectrometry and metabolic profiling have driven progress in genomics, transcriptomics (functional genomics), proteomics and metabolomics. This review appraises the recent application of these approaches to studies of breast cancer metastasis (particularly to bone), with a focus on understanding how omic approaches may lead to new therapeutic options and to novel biomarker molecules or molecular signatures with potential value in clinical practise. The increasingly recognised need for rigorous sample quality control and both pre-clinical and clinical validation to meet the ultimate goals of clinical utility and patient benefit is discussed. Future directions of omic driven research in breast cancer metastasis are considered, in particular micro-RNAs and their role in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene function and the possible role of cancer-stem cells and epigenetic modifications in the development of distant metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven L Wood
- Wolfson Molecular Imaging Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester M20 3LJ, UK.
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Tzadok S, Caspin Y, Hachmo Y, Canaani D, Dotan I. Directionality of noncoding human RNAs: how to avoid artifacts. Anal Biochem 2013; 439:23-9. [PMID: 23583907 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2013.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Inactivation of tumor suppressor and metastasis suppressor genes via epigenetic silencing is a frequent event in human cancers. Recent work has shown new mechanisms of epigenetic silencing, based on the occurrence of long noncoding promoter-spanning antisense and/or sense RNAs (lncRNAs), which constitute part of chromatin silencing complexes. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we have started to scan "triple negative" and Her2-overexpressing breast cancer cell lines for directional/bidirectional transcription through promoters of tumor suppressor and metastasis suppressor genes known to be epigenetically silenced in vivo. Surprisingly, we found that RT-PCR-amplified products were obtained at high frequency in the absence of exogenous primers. These amplified products resulted from RT priming via transcripts originating from promoter or upstream spanning regions. Consequently, this priming overruled directionality determination and led to false detection-identification of such lncRNAs. We show that this prevalent "no primer" artifact can be eliminated by treating the RNA preparations with periodate, performing RT reactions at highly elevated temperatures, or a combination of both. These experimental improvements enabled determination of the presence and directionality of individual promoter-spanning long noncoding RNAs with certainty. Examples for the BRMS1 metastasis suppressor gene, as well as RAR-β2 and CST6 human tumor suppressor genes, in breast carcinoma cell lines are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sivan Tzadok
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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Chimonidou M, Tzitzira A, Strati A, Sotiropoulou G, Sfikas C, Malamos N, Georgoulias V, Lianidou E. CST6 promoter methylation in circulating cell-free DNA of breast cancer patients. Clin Biochem 2013; 46:235-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2012.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Abstract
Cystatins comprise a large superfamily of related proteins with diverse biological activities. They were initially characterised as inhibitors of lysosomal cysteine proteases, however, in recent years some alternative functions for cystatins have been proposed. Cystatins possessing inhibitory function are members of three families, family I (stefins), family II (cystatins) and family III (kininogens). Stefin A is often linked to neoplastic changes in epithelium while another family I cystatin, stefin B is supposed to have a specific role in neuredegenerative diseases. Cystatin C, a typical type II cystatin, is expressed in a variety of human tissues and cells. On the other hand, expression of other type II cystatins is more specific. Cystatin F is an endo/lysosome targeted protease inhibitor, selectively expressed in immune cells, suggesting its role in processes related to immune response. Our recent work points on its role in regulation of dendritic cell maturation and in natural killer cells functional inactivation that may enhance tumor survival. Cystatin E/M expression is mainly restricted to the epithelia of the skin which emphasizes its prominent role in cutaneous biology. Here, we review the current knowledge on type I (stefins A and B) and type II cystatins (cystatins C, F and E/M) in pathologies, with particular emphasis on their suppressive vs. promotional function in the tumorigenesis and metastasis. We proposed that an imbalance between cathepsins and cystatins may attenuate immune cell functions and facilitate tumor cell invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spela Magister
- 1. Jožef Stefan Institute, Department of Biotechnology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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32
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Dimitrakopoulos L, Vorkas PA, Georgoulias V, Lianidou ES. A closed-tube methylation-sensitive high resolution melting assay (MS-HRMA) for the semi-quantitative determination of CST6 promoter methylation in clinical samples. BMC Cancer 2012; 12:486. [PMID: 23088560 PMCID: PMC3495665 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-12-486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background CST6 promoter is highly methylated in cancer, and its detection can provide important prognostic information in breast cancer patients. The aim of our study was to develop a Methylation-Sensitive High Resolution Melting Analysis (MS-HRMA) assay for the investigation of CST6 promoter methylation. Methods We designed primers that amplify both methylated and unmethylated CST6 sequences after sodium bisulfate (SB) treatment and used spiked control samples of fully methylated to unmethylated SB converted genomic DNA to optimize the assay. We first evaluated the assay by analyzing 36 samples (pilot training group) and further analyzed 80 FFPES from operable breast cancer patients (independent group). MS-HRMA assay results for all 116 samples were compared with Methylation-Specific PCR (MSP) and the results were comparable. Results The developed assay is highly specific and sensitive since it can detect the presence of 1% methylated CST6 sequence and provides additionally a semi-quantitative estimation of CST6 promoter methylation. CST6 promoter was methylated in 39/80 (48.75%) of FFPEs with methylation levels being very different among samples. MS-HRMA and MSP gave comparable results when all samples were analyzed by both assays. Conclusions The developed MS-HRMA assay for CST6 promoter methylation is closed tube, highly sensitive, cost-effective, rapid and easy-to-perform. It gives comparable results to MSP in less time, while it offers the advantage of additionally providing an estimation of the level of methylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lampros Dimitrakopoulos
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Athens, 15771, Greece
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SANDHU RUPNINDER, RIVENBARK ASHLEYG, COLEMAN WILLIAMB. Loss of post-transcriptional regulation of DNMT3b by microRNAs: a possible molecular mechanism for the hypermethylation defect observed in a subset of breast cancer cell lines. Int J Oncol 2012; 41:721-32. [PMID: 22664488 PMCID: PMC3982716 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2012.1505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
A hypermethylation defect associated with DNMT hyperactivity and DNMT3b overexpression characterizes a subset of breast cancers and breast cancer cell lines. We analyzed breast cancer cell lines for differential expression of regulatory miRs to determine if loss of miR-mediated post-transcriptional regulation of DNMT3b represents the molecular mechanism that governs the overexpression of DNMT3b that drives the hypermethylation defect in breast cancer. MicroRNAs (miRs) that regulate (miR-29a, miR-29b, miR-29c, miR-148a, miR-148b) or are predicted (miR-26a, miR-26b, miR-203, miR-222) to regulate DNMT3b were examined among 10 hypermethylator and 6 non-hypermethylator breast cancer cell lines. Hypermethylator cell lines express diminished levels of miR-29c, miR-148a, miR-148b, miR-26a, miR-26b, and miR-203 compared to non-hypermethylator cell lines. miR expression patterns correlate inversely with methylation-sensitive gene expression (r=-0.66, p=0.0056) and directly with the methylation status of these genes (r=0.72, p=0.002). To determine the mechanistic role of specific miRs in the dysregulation of DNMT3b among breast cancer cell lines, miR levels were modulated by transfection of pre-miR precursors for miR-148b, miR-26b, and miR-29c into hypermethylator cell lines (Hs578T, HCC1937, SUM185) and transfection of antagomirs directed against miR-148b, miR-26b, and miR-29c into non-hypermethylator cell lines (BT20, MDA-MB-415, MDA-MB-468). Antagomir-mediated knock-down of miR-148b, miR-29c, and miR-26b significantly increased DNMT3b mRNA in non-hypermethylator cell lines, and re-expression of miR-148b, miR-29c, and miR-26b following transfection of pre-miR precursors significantly reduced DNMT3b mRNA in hypermethylator cell lines. These findings strongly suggest that: i) post-transcriptional regulation of DNMT3b is combinatorial, ii) diminished expression of regulatory miRs contributes to DNMT3b overexpression, iii) re-expression of regulatory miRs reduces DNMT3b mRNA levels in hypermethylator breast cancer cell lines, and iv) down-regulation of regulatory miRs increases DNMT3b mRNA levels in non-hypermethylator breast cancer cell lines. In conlcusion, the molecular mechanism governing the DNMT3b-mediated hypermethylation defect in breast cancer cell lines involves the loss of post-transcriptional regulation of DNMT3b by regulatory miRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- RUPNINDER SANDHU
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
- Program in Translational Medicine
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC,
USA
| | - ASHLEY G. RIVENBARK
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
- UNC Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC,
USA
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Jin L, Zhang Y, Li H, Yao L, Fu D, Yao X, Xu LX, Hu X, Hu G. Differential secretome analysis reveals CST6 as a suppressor of breast cancer bone metastasis. Cell Res 2012; 22:1356-73. [PMID: 22688893 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2012.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone metastasis is a frequent complication of breast cancer and a common cause of morbidity and mortality from the disease. During metastasis secreted proteins play crucial roles in the interactions between cancer cells and host stroma. To characterize the secreted proteins that are associated with breast cancer bone metastasis, we preformed a label-free proteomic analysis to compare the secretomes of four MDA-MB-231 (MDA231) derivative cell lines with varied capacities of bone metastasis. A total of 128 proteins were found to be consistently up-/down-regulated in the conditioned medium of bone-tropic cancer cells. The enriched molecular functions of the altered proteins included receptor binding and peptidase inhibition. Through additional transcriptomic analyses of breast cancer cells, we selected cystatin E/M (CST6), a cysteine protease inhibitor down-regulated in bone-metastatic cells, for further functional studies. Our results showed that CST6 suppressed the proliferation, colony formation, migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. The suppressive function against cancer cell motility was carried out by cancer cell-derived soluble CST6. More importantly, ectopic expression of CST6 in cancer cells rescued mice from overt osteolytic metastasis and deaths in the animal study, while CST6 knockdown markedly enhanced cancer cell bone metastasis and shortened animal survival. Overall, our study provided a systemic secretome analysis of breast cancer bone tropism and established secreted CST6 as a bona fide suppressor of breast cancer osteolytic metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Jin
- The Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences & Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 225 South Chongqing Rd, Shanghai 200025, China
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Sandhu R, Rivenbark AG, Coleman WB. Enhancement of chemotherapeutic efficacy in hypermethylator breast cancer cells through targeted and pharmacologic inhibition of DNMT3b. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2012; 131:385-99. [PMID: 21359954 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-011-1409-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 02/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A subset of primary breast cancers and breast cancer cell lines express a hypermethylation defect (characterized by DNMT hyperactivity and DNMT3b overexpression) which contributes to chemotherapy resistance and provides a target for development of new treatment strategies. The objective of the current study was to determine if targeting the epigenome enhances the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to cytotoxic chemotherapy. Hypermethylator breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-453, BT549, and Hs578T) were treated with 250 or 500 nM 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza) and/or were subjected to RNAi-mediated DNMT3b knockdown (KD), and then tested for sensitivity to doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX), paclitaxel (PAX), and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). In MDA-MB-453 cells, DNMT3b KD reduces the IC(50) for DOX from 0.086 to 0.048 μM (44% reduction), for PAX from 0.497 to 0.376 nM (24%), and for 5-FU from 0.817 to 0.145 mM (82%). Treatment with 250 nM 5-aza for 7 days did not increase the efficacy of DOX, PAX, or 5-FU, but 7-day treatment with 500 nM 5-aza sensitized cells, reducing the IC(50) for DOX to 0.035 μM (60%), PAX to 0.311 nM (37%), and 5-FU to 0.065 mM (92%). 5-aza treatment of DNMT3b KD cells reduced the IC(50) for DOX to 0.036 μM (59%), for PAX to 0.313 nM (37%) and for 5-FU to 0.067 (92%). Similar trends of enhancement of cell kill were seen in BT549 (13-60%) and Hs578T (29-70%) cells after RNAi-mediated DNMT3b KD and/or treatment with 5-aza. The effectiveness of DOX, PAX, and 5-FU is enhanced through targeted and/or pharmacological inhibition of DNMT3b, strongly suggesting that combined epigenetic and cytotoxic treatment will improve the efficacy of breast cancer chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupninder Sandhu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 515 Brinkhous Bullitt Building, CB #7525, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Kim JH, Kim TW, Kim SJ. Downregulation of ARFGEF1 and CAMK2B by promoter hypermethylation in breast cancer cells. BMB Rep 2011; 44:523-8. [PMID: 21871176 DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2011.44.8.523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
To identify novel genes that are regulated by promoter methylation, a combinational approach involving in silico mining followed by molecular assay was performed. From the expression microarray data registered in the European bioinformatics institute (EBI), genes showing downregulation in breast cancer cells were initially screened and then selected by e-Northern analysis using the Unigene database. A series of these in silico methods identified CAMK2B and ARFGEF1 as candidates, and the two genes were revealed to be hypermethylated in breast cancer cell lines and hypomethylated in normal breast cell lines. Additionally, cancer cell lines showed downregulated expression of these genes. Furthermore, treatment of the cancer cell lines with a demethylation agent, 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine, recovered expression of CAMK2B and ARFGEF1, implying that hypermethyaltion silenced gene activity in cancer cells. Taken together, promoter methylations of CAMK2B and ARFGEF1 are novel epigenetic markers identified in breast cancer cell lines and can be utilized for the application to clinical cancer tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju Hee Kim
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Korea
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Xiang TX, Yuan Y, Li LL, Wang ZH, Dan LY, Chen Y, Ren GS, Tao Q. Aberrant promoter CpG methylation and its translational applications in breast cancer. CHINESE JOURNAL OF CANCER 2011; 32:12-20. [PMID: 22059908 PMCID: PMC3845590 DOI: 10.5732/cjc.011.10344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is a complex disease driven by multiple factors including both genetic and epigenetic alterations. Recent studies revealed that abnormal gene expression induced by epigenetic changes, including aberrant promoter methylation and histone modification, plays a critical role in human breast Carcinogenesis. Silencing of tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) by promoter CpG methylation facilitates cells growth and survival advantages and further results in tumor initiation and progression, thus directly contributing to breast tumorigenesis. Usually, aberrant promoter methylation of TSGs, which can be reversed by pharmacological reagents, occurs at the early stage of tumorigenesis and therefore may serve as a potential tumor marker for early diagnosis and therapeutic targeting of breast cancer. In this review, we summarize the epigenetic changes of multiple TSGs involved in breast pathogenesis and their potential clinical applications as tumor markers for early detection and treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Xiu Xiang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
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38
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Delmas AL, Riggs BM, Pardo CE, Dyer LM, Darst RP, Izumchenko EG, Monroe M, Hakam A, Kladde MP, Siegel EM, Brown KD. WIF1 is a frequent target for epigenetic silencing in squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix. Carcinogenesis 2011; 32:1625-33. [PMID: 21873353 PMCID: PMC3204350 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgr193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Revised: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling axis is a prominent oncogenic mechanism in numerous cancers including cervical cancer. Wnt inhibitory factor-1 (WIF1) is a secreted protein that binds Wnt and antagonizes Wnt activity. While the WIF1 gene is characterized as a target for epigenetic silencing in some tumor types, WIF1 expression has not been examined in human cervical tissue and cervical cancer. Here, we show that WIF1 is unmethylated and its gene product is expressed in normal cervical epithelium and some cultured cervical tumor lines. In contrast, several cervical cancer lines contained dense CpG methylation within the WIF1 gene, and expression of both WIF1 transcript and protein was restored by culturing cells in the presence of the global DNA demethylating agent 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine. Using single-molecule MAPit methylation footprinting, we observed differences in chromatin structure within the WIF1 promoter region between cell lines that express and those that do not express WIF1, consistent with transcriptional activity and repression, respectively. The WIF1 promoter was aberrantly methylated in ∼60% (10 of 17) high-grade highly undifferentiated squamous cell cervical tumors examined, whereas paired normal tissue showed significantly lower levels of CpG methylation. WIF1 protein was not detectable by immunohistochemistry in tumors with quantitatively high levels of WIF1 methylation. Of note, WIF1 protein was not detectable in two of the seven unmethylated cervical tumors examined, suggesting other mechanisms may contribute WIF1 repression. Our findings establish the WIF1 gene as a frequent target for epigenetic silencing in squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/genetics
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/metabolism
- Azacitidine/analogs & derivatives
- Azacitidine/pharmacology
- Blotting, Western
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/genetics
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/pathology
- Cell Line
- Cervix Uteri/metabolism
- CpG Islands/genetics
- DNA Methylation
- Decitabine
- Epigenesis, Genetic
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Gene Silencing
- Humans
- Immunoenzyme Techniques
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Repressor Proteins/genetics
- Repressor Proteins/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Uterine Cervical Neoplasms/genetics
- Uterine Cervical Neoplasms/metabolism
- Uterine Cervical Neoplasms/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bridget M. Riggs
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, Division of Population Sciences, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Mänette Monroe
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Ardeshir Hakam
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Michael P. Kladde
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Box 100245, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA. Tel: +352 273 5458,
| | - Erin M. Siegel
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, Division of Population Sciences, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Kevin D. Brown
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Box 100245, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA. Tel: +352 273 5458,
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Chimonidou M, Strati A, Tzitzira A, Sotiropoulou G, Malamos N, Georgoulias V, Lianidou ES. DNA methylation of tumor suppressor and metastasis suppressor genes in circulating tumor cells. Clin Chem 2011; 57:1169-77. [PMID: 21700955 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2011.165902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are associated with prognosis in a variety of human cancers and have been proposed as a liquid biopsy for follow-up examinations. We show that tumor suppressor and metastasis suppressor genes are epigenetically silenced in CTCs isolated from peripheral blood of breast cancer patients. METHODS We obtained peripheral blood from 56 patients with operable breast cancer, 27 patients with verified metastasis, and 23 healthy individuals. We tested DNA extracted from the EpCAM-positive immunomagnetically selected CTC fraction for the presence of methylated and unmethylated CST6, BRMS1, and SOX17 promoter sequences by methylation-specific PCR (MSP). All samples were checked for KRT19 (keratin 19, formerly CK-19) expression by reverse-transcription quantitative PCR. RESULTS In CTCs of patients with operable breast cancer, promoter methylation of CST6 was observed in 17.9%, BRMS1 in 32.1%, and SOX17 in 53.6% of patients. In CTCs of patients with verified metastasis, promoter methylation of CST6 was observed in 37.0%, BRMS1 in 44.4%, and SOX17 in 74.1%. In healthy individuals, promoter methylation of CST6 was observed in 4.3%, BRMS1 in 8.7%, and SOX17 in 4.3%. DNA methylation of these genes for both operable and metastatic breast cancer was significantly different from that of the control population. CONCLUSIONS DNA methylation of tumor suppressor and metastasis suppressor genes is a hallmark of CTCs and confirms their heterogeneity. Our findings add a new dimension to the molecular characterization of CTCs and may underlie the acquisition of malignant properties, including their stem-like phenotype.
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40
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Lopez-Garcia MA, Geyer FC, Lacroix-Triki M, Marchió C, Reis-Filho JS. Breast cancer precursors revisited: molecular features and progression pathways. Histopathology 2010; 57:171-92. [PMID: 20500230 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2559.2010.03568.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Increasingly more coherent data on the molecular characteristics of benign breast lesions and breast cancer precursors have led to the delineation of new multistep pathways of breast cancer progression through genotypic-phenotypic correlations. It has become apparent that oestrogen receptor (ER)-positive and -negative breast lesions are fundamentally distinct diseases. Within the ER-positive group, histological grade is strongly associated with the number and complexity of genetic abnormalities in breast cancer cells. Genomic analyses of high-grade ER-positive breast cancers have revealed that a substantial proportion of these tumours harbour the characteristic genetic aberrations found in low-grade ER-positive disease, suggesting that at least a subgroup of high-grade ER-positive breast cancers may originate from low-grade lesions. The ER-negative group is more complex and heterogeneous, comprising distinct molecular entities, including basal-like, HER2 and molecular apocrine lesions. Importantly, the type and pattern of genetic aberrations found in ER-negative cancers differ from those of ER-positive disease. Here, we review the available molecular data on breast cancer risk indicator and precursor lesions, the putative mechanisms of progression from in situ to invasive disease, and propose a revised model of breast cancer evolution based on the molecular characteristics of distinct subtypes of in situ and invasive breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A Lopez-Garcia
- Molecular Pathology Team, The Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Centre, Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London, UK
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41
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Abstract
Promoter region hyermethylation and transcriptional silencing is a frequent cause of tumour suppressor gene (TSG) inactivation in many types of human cancers. Functional epigenetic studies, in which gene expression is induced by treatment with demethylating agents, may identify novel genes with tumour-specific methylation. We used high-density gene expression microarrays in a functional epigenetic study of 11 renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cell lines. Twenty-eight genes were then selected for analysis of promoter methylation status in cell lines and primary RCC. Eight genes (BNC1, PDLIM4, RPRM, CST6, SFRP1, GREM1, COL14A1 and COL15A1) showed frequent (>30% of RCC tested) tumour-specific promoter region methylation. Hypermethylation was associated with transcriptional silencing. Re-expression of BNC1, CST6, RPRM and SFRP1 suppressed the growth of RCC cell lines and RNA interference knock-down of BNC1, SFRP1 and COL14A1 increased the growth of RCC cell lines. Methylation of BNC1 or COL14A1 was associated with a poorer prognosis independent of tumour size, stage or grade. The identification of these epigenetically inactivated candidate RCC TSGs can provide insights into renal tumourigenesis and a basis for developing novel therapies and biomarkers for prognosis and detection.
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42
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Briggs JJ, Haugen MH, Johansen HT, Riker AI, Abrahamson M, Fodstad Ø, Maelandsmo GM, Solberg R. Cystatin E/M suppresses legumain activity and invasion of human melanoma. BMC Cancer 2010; 10:17. [PMID: 20074384 PMCID: PMC2822816 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-10-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2009] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background High activity of cysteine proteases such as legumain and the cathepsins have been shown to facilitate growth and invasion of a variety of tumor types. In breast cancer, several recent studies have indicated that loss of the cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin E/M leads to increased growth and metastasis. Although cystatin E/M is normally expressed in the skin, its role in cysteine protease regulation and progression of malignant melanoma has not been studied. Methods A panel of various non-melanoma and melanoma cell lines was used. Cystatin E/M and C were analyzed in cell media by immunoblotting and ELISA. Legumain, cathepsin B and L were analyzed in cell lysates by immunoblotting and their enzymatic activities were analyzed by peptide substrates. Two melanoma cell lines lacking detectable secretion of cystatin E/M were transfected with a cystatin E/M expression plasmid (pCST6), and migration and invasiveness were studied by a Matrigel invasion assay. Results Cystatin E/M was undetectable in media from all established melanoma cell lines examined, whereas strong immunobands were detected in two of five primary melanoma lines and in two of six lines derived from patients with metastatic disease. Among the four melanoma lines secreting cystatin E/M, the glycosylated form (17 kD) was predominant compared to the non-glycosylated form (14 kD). Legumain, cathepsin B and L were expressed and active in most of the cell lines, although at low levels in the melanomas expressing cystatin E/M. In the melanoma lines where cystatin E/M was secreted, cystatin C was generally absent or expressed at a very low level. When melanoma cells lacking secretion of cystatin E/M were transfected with pCST6, their intracellular legumain activity was significantly inhibited. In contrast, cathepsin B activity was not affected. Furthermore, invasion was suppressed in cystatin E/M over-expressing melanoma cell lines as measured by the transwell Matrigel assay. Conclusions These results suggest that the level of cystatin E/M regulates legumain activity and hence the invasive potential of human melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon J Briggs
- Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Radiumhospitalet, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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Zhu W, Qin W, Hewett JE, Sauter ER. Quantitative evaluation of DNA hypermethylation in malignant and benign breast tissue and fluids. Int J Cancer 2010; 126:474-82. [PMID: 19618401 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The assessment of DNA had demonstrated altered methylation in malignant compared to benign breast tissue. The purpose of our study was to (i) confirm the predictive ability of methylation assessment in breast tissue, and (ii) use the genes found to be cancer predictive in tissue to evaluate the diagnostic potential of hypermethylation assessment in nipple aspirate fluid (NAF) and mammary ductoscopic (MD) samples. Quantitative methylation specific (qMS)-PCR was conducted on three specimen sets: 44 malignant (CA) and 34 normal (NL) tissue specimens, 18 matched CA, adjacent normal (ANL) tissue and NAF specimens, and 119 MD specimens. Training and validation tissue sets were analyzed to determine the optimal group of cancer predictive genes for NAF and MD analysis. NAF and MD cytologic review were also performed. Methylation of CCND-2, p16, RAR-beta and RASSF-1a was significantly more prevalent in tumor than in normal tissue specimens. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis demonstrated an area under the curve of 0.96. For the 18 matched CA, ANL and NAF specimens, the four predictive genes identified in cancer tissue contained increased methylation in CA vs. ANL tissue; NAF samples had higher methylation than ANL specimens. Methylation frequency was higher in MD specimens from breasts with cancer than benign samples for p16 and RASSF-1a. In summary, i) routine quantitative DNA methylation assessment in NAF and MD samples is possible, and ii) genes hypermethylated in malignant breast tissue are also altered in matched NAF and in MD samples, and may be useful to assist in early breast cancer detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhu Zhu
- Department of Research Affairs, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, USA
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Chen X, Cao X, Dong W, Xia M, Luo S, Fan Q, Xie J. Cystatin M expression is reduced in gastric carcinoma and is associated with promoter hypermethylation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 391:1070-4. [PMID: 20004178 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2009] [Accepted: 12/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Cystatin M is a secreted inhibitor of lysosomal cysteine proteases and increasing evidences indicate that it is a novel target for epigenetic silencing during mammary tumorigenesis. Aberrant promoter methylation is a well-known mechanism that participates in cystatin M silencing in breast cancer. However, the role of cystatin M in the gastric cancer remains to be elucidated. Immunohistochemistry was used to investigate the expression of cystatin M in 60 gastric carcinomas. Hypermethylation of cystatin M promoter was evaluated by the methylation-specific PCR (MSP) method in gastric carcinomas (tumor and paired adjacent non-tumor tissues). Reverse-transcriptase PCR and BSP were also performed on gastric cancer cell lines before and after treatment with 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-Aza-dC). Lost expression of cystatin M was observed in 42 of 60 (70%) gastric carcinomas. 55% (33 of 60) of primary tumors analyzed displayed cystatin M promoter hypermethylation, indicating that this aberrant characteristic is common in gastric malignancies. Moreover, a statistically significant inverse association was found between cystatin M methylation status and expression of the cystatin M protein in tumor tissues (p=0.027). We also found that patients with cystatin M promoter methylation had a significantly shorter survival time than those without this methylation (p=0.020). These results suggest that cystatin M promoter hypermethylation is one of the molecular mechanisms that accounts for reduced cystatin M gene expression in gastric carcinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobing Chen
- Department of Internal Medicine-Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou University, People's Republic of China
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Kioulafa M, Balkouranidou I, Sotiropoulou G, Kaklamanis L, Mavroudis D, Georgoulias V, Lianidou ES. Methylation of cystatin M promoter is associated with unfavorable prognosis in operable breast cancer. Int J Cancer 2009; 125:2887-92. [PMID: 19551853 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The methylation status of cystatin M (CST6) gene in breast tumors was investigated and its prognostic significance as a novel breast cancer biomarker was evaluated. Using methylation-specific PCR (MSP), CST6 promoter methylation was examined in 134 formalin fixed paraffin-embedded tissues (FFPEs): 10 pairs of breast tumors and their surrounding normal tissues, 10 breast fibroadenomas, 11 normal breast tissues and 93 breast tumors. Methylation of CST6 promoter was observed in 2/21 (9.5%) noncancerous breast tissues, 1/10 (10%) benign breast tumors (fibroadenomas) and 52 (55.9%) operable breast cancer tumor samples. CST6 was rarely methylated in the normal tissue surrounding the tumor (10%). During the follow-up period, 24 (25.8%) patients relapsed and 19 (20.4%) died. CST6 methylation was detected in 19 (79.2%) of patients who relapsed and in 15 (78.9%) of patients who died. Disease-free-interval (DFI) and overall survival (OS) were significantly associated with CST6 promoter methylation (p=0.004 and p=0.001 respectively). Multivariate analysis revealed that CST6 methylation is an independent prognostic factor for DFI (HR=3.484; 95% CI: 1.155-10.511; p=0.027). and OS (HR=9.190; 95% CI: 1.989-42.454; p=0.004). CST6 promoter methylation status in tumor cells seems to provide important prognostic information in operable breast cancer and merits to be further evaluated and validated in a larger cohort of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalini Kioulafa
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Sharma S, Tantisira K, Carey V, Murphy AJ, Lasky-Su J, Celedón JC, Lazarus R, Klanderman B, Rogers A, Soto-Quirós M, Avila L, Mariani T, Gaedigk R, Leeder S, Torday J, Warburton D, Raby B, Weiss ST. A role for Wnt signaling genes in the pathogenesis of impaired lung function in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 181:328-36. [PMID: 19926868 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200907-1009oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Animal models demonstrate that aberrant gene expression in utero can result in abnormal pulmonary phenotypes. OBJECTIVES We sought to identify genes that are differentially expressed during in utero airway development and test the hypothesis that variants in these genes influence lung function in patients with asthma. METHODS Stage 1 (Gene Expression): Differential gene expression analysis across the pseudoglandular (n = 27) and canalicular (n = 9) stages of human lung development was performed using regularized t tests with multiple comparison adjustments. Stage 2 (Genetic Association): Genetic association analyses of lung function (FEV(1), FVC, and FEV(1)/FVC) for variants in five differentially expressed genes were conducted in 403 parent-child trios from the Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP). Associations were replicated in 583 parent-child trios from the Genetics of Asthma in Costa Rica study. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Of the 1,776 differentially expressed genes between the pseudoglandular (gestational age: 7-16 wk) and the canalicular (gestational age: 17-26 wk) stages, we selected 5 genes in the Wnt pathway for association testing. Thirteen single nucleotide polymorphisms in three genes demonstrated association with lung function in CAMP (P < 0.05), and associations for two of these genes were replicated in the Costa Ricans: Wnt1-inducible signaling pathway protein 1 with FEV(1) (combined P = 0.0005) and FVC (combined P = 0.0004), and Wnt inhibitory factor 1 with FVC (combined P = 0.003) and FEV(1)/FVC (combined P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS Wnt signaling genes are associated with impaired lung function in two childhood asthma cohorts. Furthermore, gene expression profiling of human fetal lung development can be used to identify genes implicated in the pathogenesis of lung function impairment in individuals with asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunita Sharma
- Channing Laboratory, Center for Genomic Medicine, 181 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Abstract
Cystatin E/M (CST6) is a natural inhibitor of lysosomal cysteine proteases. Recent studies have shown that experimental manipulation of CST6 expression alters the metastatic behavior of human breast cancer cells. However, the association of CST6 with prostate cancer invasion and progression remains unclear. Here, we show that CST6 is robustly expressed in normal human prostate epithelium, whereas its expression is downregulated in metastatic prostate cell lines and prostate tumor tissues. Treatment of metastatic prostate cell lines with the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A resulted in significant induction of CST6 mRNA levels and increased CST6 protein expression, indicating that epigenetic silencing may play a role in the loss of CST6 expression observed in prostate cancer. CST6 overexpression in human prostate cancer cells significantly reduced in vitro cell proliferation and matrigel invasion. Furthermore, the results from a bioluminescence tumor/metastasis model showed that the overexpression of CST6 significantly inhibits tumor growth and the incidence of lung metastasis. These results suggest that the downregulation of the CST6 gene is associated with promoter histone modifications and that this association plays an important role in prostate cancer progression during the invasive and metastatic stages of the disease.
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Watson CJ, Kreuzaler PA. The role of cathepsins in involution and breast cancer. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2009; 14:171-9. [PMID: 19437107 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-009-9126-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2009] [Accepted: 04/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are proteolytic enzymes that reside in endolysosomal vesicles. Some are expressed constitutively while others are transcriptionally regulated. However, the expression and subcellular localization of cathepsins changes during cancer progression and cathepsins have been shown to be causally involved in various aspects of tumorigenesis including metastasis. The use of mouse models of breast cancer genetically ablated for cathepsin B has shown that both the growth of the primary tumor and the extend of lung metastasis is reduced by the loss of cathepsin B. The role of cathepsins in involution of the mammary gland has received little attention although it is clear that cathepsins are involved in tissue remodeling in the second phase of involution. We discuss here the roles of cathepsins and their endogenous inhibitors in breast tumorigenesis and post-lactational involution.
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Orlando FA, Brown KD. Unraveling breast cancer heterogeneity through transcriptomic and epigenomic analysis. Ann Surg Oncol 2009; 16:2270-9. [PMID: 19452229 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-009-0500-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2008] [Revised: 03/31/2009] [Accepted: 04/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer diversity is histologically evident as various proliferative benign lesions, in situ carcinomas, and invasive carcinomas that may develop into distant metastases. Breast tumor molecular subtypes have been defined by genome-wide expression microarray technology and reveal associations between genetic alterations and the malignant phenotype. Early work has been conducted to use subtype-specific biomarkers to elucidate targeted treatment options early in the course of breast cancer progression. Additionally, DNA methylation is an epigenetic modification that contributes to breast cancer progression by transcriptionally silencing certain tumor suppressor genes. Among the genes characterized as targets for silencing are well-established tumor suppressors such as RASSF1A, RARB, SFN, and TGM2. Measuring elevated gene copy number and aberrant gene promoter methylation can further facilitate characterization of breast tumor molecular subtype; however, profiling of breast tumors based on epigenetic criteria has yet to be established. Epigenomic analysis has been investigated for clinical applicability, and it has great promise when used in combination with minimally invasive techniques for both diagnostic and prognostic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank A Orlando
- Department of Surgery, University of Florida College of Medicine and UF Shands Cancer Center, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Zeeuwen PLJM, Cheng T, Schalkwijk J. The biology of cystatin M/E and its cognate target proteases. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129:1327-38. [PMID: 19262604 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Cystatin M/E is a member of a superfamily of evolutionarily-related cysteine protease inhibitors that provide regulatory and protective functions against uncontrolled proteolysis by cysteine proteases. Although most cystatins are ubiquitously expressed, high levels of cystatin M/E expression are mainly restricted to the epithelia of the skin (epidermis, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands) and to a few extracutaneous tissues. The identification of its physiological targets and the localization of these proteases in skin have suggested a regulatory role for cystatin M/E in epidermal differentiation. In vitro biochemical approaches as well as the use of in vivo mouse models have revealed that cystatin M/E is a key molecule in a biochemical pathway that controls skin barrier formation by the regulation of both crosslinking and desquamation of the stratum corneum. Cystatin M/E directly controls the activity of cathepsin V, cathepsin L, and legumain, thereby regulating the processing of transglutaminases. Misregulation of this pathway by unrestrained protease activity, as seen in cystatin M/E-deficient mice, leads to abnormal stratum corneum and hair follicle formation, as well as to severe disturbance of skin barrier function. Here, we review the current knowledge on cystatin M/E in skin barrier formation and its potential role as a tumor suppressor gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick L J M Zeeuwen
- Department of Dermatology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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