1
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Cho J, Tae N, Song Y, Kim CW, Lee SJ, Ahn JH, Lee KH, Lee BH, Kim BS, Chang SY, Kim DH, Ko HJ. The expression of PD-L1 on tumor-derived exosomes enhances infiltration and anti-tumor activity of αCD3 × αPD-L1 bispecific antibody-armed T cells. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2024; 73:196. [PMID: 39105814 PMCID: PMC11303351 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-024-03785-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/07/2024]
Abstract
Anti-cluster of differentiation (CD) 3 × α programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) bispecific T-cell engager (BsTE)-bound T-cells (BsTE:T) are a promising new cancer treatment agent. However, the mechanisms of action of bispecific antibody-armed activated T-cells are poorly understood. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the anti-tumor mechanism and efficacy of BsTE:T. The BsTE:T migration was assessed in vivo and in vitro using syngeneic and xenogeneic tumor models, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence staining, transwell migration assays, microfluidic chips, Exo View R100, western blotting, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 technology. In murine B16 melanoma, MC38 colon cancer, and human multiple myeloma cells, BsTE:T exhibited superior tumor elimination relative to that of T-cells or BsTE alone. Moreover, BsTE:T migration into tumors was significantly enhanced owing to the presence of PD-L1 in tumor cells and secretion of PD-L1-containing exosomes. Furthermore, increased infiltration of CD44highCD62Llow effector memory CD8+ T-cells into tumors was closely associated with the anti-tumor effect of BsTE:T. Therefore, BsTE:T is an innovative potential anti-tumor therapy, and exosomal PD-L1 plays a crucial role both in vitro and in vivo in the anti-tumor activity of BsTE:T.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaewon Cho
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Nara Tae
- Kangwon Institute of Inclusive Technology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Yujeong Song
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Chae-Won Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Joo Lee
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hee Ahn
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwang-Ho Lee
- Department of Advanced Material Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 25561, Korea
| | - Byung-Hyun Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Soo Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun-Young Chang
- Laboratory of Microbiology, College of Pharmacy, and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology (RIPST), Ajou University, Suwon, 16499, Korea
| | - Dae Hee Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
- Kangwon Institute of Inclusive Technology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
- Global/Gangwon Innovative Biologics-Regional Leading Research Center (GIB-RLRC), Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyun-Jeong Ko
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
- Kangwon Institute of Inclusive Technology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
- Innovative Drug Development Research Team for Intractable Diseases (BK21 plus), Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
- Global/Gangwon Innovative Biologics-Regional Leading Research Center (GIB-RLRC), Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, 24341, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Wilbur HC, Azad NS. Immunotherapy for the treatment of biliary tract cancer: an evolving landscape. Ther Adv Med Oncol 2024; 16:17588359241235799. [PMID: 38449562 PMCID: PMC10916472 DOI: 10.1177/17588359241235799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Biliary tract cancers (BTCs), consisting of intrahepatic and extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma and gallbladder cancer, are an aggressive, heterogeneous malignancy. They are most often diagnosed in the locally advanced or metastatic setting, at which point treatment consists of systemic therapy or best supportive care. Our understanding of the tumor microenvironment and the molecular classification has led to the identification of targetable mutations, such as isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and fibroblast growth factor receptor 2. Despite the identification of these genomic alterations, until recently, little advancement had been made in the first-line setting for advanced BTC. While immunotherapy (IO) has revolutionized the treatment of many malignancies, the use of IO in BTC had yielded limited results prior to TOPAZ-1. In this review, we discuss the systemic therapeutic advances for BTC over the past decade, the rationale for immunotherapy in BTC, prior trials utilizing IO in BTC, and current and emerging immune-based therapeutic options. We further analyze the culmination of these advances, which resulted in the approval of durvalumab with gemcitabine and cisplatin for the first-line treatment of BTC per TOPAZ-1. We also discuss the results of KEYNOTE-966, which similarly reported improved clinical outcomes with the use of pembrolizumab in combination with gemcitabine and cisplatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Catherine Wilbur
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nilofer S. Azad
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University, 401 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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3
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Jan N, Sofi S, Qayoom H, Shabir A, Haq BU, Macha MA, Almilaibary A, Mir MA. Metronomic chemotherapy and drug repurposing: A paradigm shift in oncology. Heliyon 2024; 10:e24670. [PMID: 38314272 PMCID: PMC10837507 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer represents a significant global health and economic burden due to its high mortality rates. While effective in some instances, traditional chemotherapy often falls short of entirely eradicating various types of cancer. It can cause severe side effects due to harm to healthy cells. Two therapeutic approaches have risen to the forefront to address these limitations: metronomic chemotherapy (MCT) and drug repurposing. Metronomic chemotherapy is an innovative approach that breaks from traditional models. It involves the administration of chemotherapeutic regimens at lower doses, without long drug-free intervals that have previously been a hallmark of such treatments. This method offers a significant reduction in side effects and improved disease management. Simultaneously, drug repurposing has gained considerable attraction in cancer treatment. This approach involves utilizing existing drugs, initially developed for other therapeutic purposes, as potential cancer treatments. The application of known drugs in a new context accelerates the timeline from laboratory to patient due to pre-existing safety and dosage data. The intersection of these two strategies gives rise to a novel therapeutic approach named 'Metronomics.' This approach encapsulates the benefits of both MCT and drug repurposing, leading to reduced toxicity, potential for oral administration, improved patient quality of life, accelerated clinical implementation, and enhanced affordability. Numerous clinical studies have endorsed the efficacy of metronomic chemotherapy with tolerable side effects, underlining the potential of Metronomics in better cancer management, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. This review underscores the benefits and applications of metronomic chemotherapy and drug repurposing, specifically in the context of breast cancer, showcasing the promising results of pre-clinical and clinical studies. However, we acknowledge the necessity of additional clinical investigations to definitively establish the role of metronomic chemotherapy in conjunction with other treatments in comprehensive cancer management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nusrat Jan
- Department of Bioresources, School of Biological Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006, India
| | - Shazia Sofi
- Department of Bioresources, School of Biological Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006, India
| | - Hina Qayoom
- Department of Bioresources, School of Biological Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006, India
| | - Aisha Shabir
- Department of Bioresources, School of Biological Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006, India
| | - Burhan Ul Haq
- Department of Bioresources, School of Biological Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006, India
| | - Muzaffar A Macha
- Watson-Crick Centre for Molecular Medicine, Islamic University of Science and Technology, Pulwama, India
| | - Abdullah Almilaibary
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Al Baha University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Manzoor Ahmad Mir
- Department of Bioresources, School of Biological Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006, India
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4
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Bravetti G, Falvo P, Talarico G, Orecchioni S, Bertolini F. Metronomic chemotherapy, dampening of immunosuppressive cells, antigen presenting cell activation, and T cells. A quartet against refractoriness and resistance to checkpoint inhibitors. Cancer Lett 2023; 577:216441. [PMID: 37806515 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapeutic agents have profound effects on cancer, stroma and immune cells that - in most cases - depend upon the dosage and schedule of administration. Preclinical and clinical studies summarized and discussed in the present review have demonstrated that maximum tolerable dosage (MTD) vs low-dosage, continuous (metronomic) administration of most chemotherapeutics have polarized effects on immune cells. In particular, metronomic schedules might be associated - among others effects - with activation of antigen presenting cells and generation of new T cell clones to enhance the activity of several types of immunotherapies. Ongoing and planned clinical trials in different types of cancer will confirm or dismiss this hypothesis and provide candidate biomarker data for the selection of patients who are likely to benefit from these combinatorial strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Bravetti
- Laboratory of Hematology-Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Via Ripamonti 435, 20137, Milan, Italy; Onco-Tech Lab, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS and Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Falvo
- Laboratory of Hematology-Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Via Ripamonti 435, 20137, Milan, Italy; Medical University of Vienna, (MUW), Borschkegasse 8A 1090, Wien, Austria
| | - Giovanna Talarico
- Laboratory of Hematology-Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Via Ripamonti 435, 20137, Milan, Italy; Onco-Tech Lab, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS and Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Orecchioni
- Laboratory of Hematology-Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Via Ripamonti 435, 20137, Milan, Italy; Onco-Tech Lab, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS and Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Bertolini
- Laboratory of Hematology-Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Via Ripamonti 435, 20137, Milan, Italy; Onco-Tech Lab, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS and Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy.
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5
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Al-Mterin MA, Elkord E. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells in colorectal cancer: prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. EXPLORATION OF TARGETED ANTI-TUMOR THERAPY 2022; 3:497-510. [PMID: 36081407 PMCID: PMC9448663 DOI: 10.37349/etat.2022.00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a group of immature myeloid cells, which are expanded in most cancer patients. MDSCs suppress host immune responses, leading to cancer growth and progression. Several studies demonstrated that there was a relationship between levels of MDSCs and tumorigenesis in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. MDSCs are now being investigated for their role as possible therapeutic targets in cancer treatment. This review summarizes available studies that investigated MDSC expansion in CRC patients, as well as their role in CRC tumorigenesis, prognosis, and targeting. Based on the available studies, there is a possible relationship between high levels of MDSCs and CRC progression. Additionally, targeting MDSCs in CRC patients selectively represents a significant challenge for the development of targeted treatments. Targeting of MDSCs could be exploited in different ways including MDSC depletion, inhibition of MDSC function and recruitment, and enhancing MDSC differentiation. Overall, MDSCs could be exploited as prognostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets in CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eyad Elkord
- Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Nizwa 616, Oman;Biomedical Research Center, School of Science, Engineering and Environment, University of Salford, M5 4WT Manchester, UK
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6
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Ramezani-Ali Akbari K, Khaki-Bakhtiarvand V, Mahmoudian J, Asgarian-Omran H, Shokri F, Hojjat-Farsangi M, Jeddi-Tehrani M, Shabani M. Cloning, expression and characterization of a peptibody to deplete myeloid derived suppressor cells in a murine mammary carcinoma model. Protein Expr Purif 2022; 200:106153. [PMID: 35995320 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2022.106153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are an immature heterogeneous population of myeloid lineage that attenuate the anti-tumor immune responses. Depletion of MDSCs has been shown to improve efficacy of cancer immunotherapeutic approaches. Here, we expressed and characterized a peptibody which had previously been defined by phage display technique capable of recognizing and depleting murine MDSCs. MATERIALS AND METHODS Using splicing by overlap extension (SOE) PCR, the coding sequence of the MDSC binding peptide and linker were synthesized and then ligated into a home-made expression plasmid containing mouse IgG2a Fc. The peptibody construct was transfected into CHO-K1 cells by lipofectamine 3000 reagent and the resulting fusion protein was purified with protein G column and subsequently characterized by ELISA, SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting. The binding profile of the peptibody to splenic MDSCs and its MDSC depletion ability were then tested by flow cytometry. RESULTS The purified peptibody appeared as a 70 KDa band in Western blot. It could bind to 98.8% of splenic CD11b+/Gr-1+ MDSCs. In addition, the intratumoral MDSCs were significantly depleted after peptibody treatment compared to their PBS-treated negative control counterparts (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION In this study, a peptibody capable of depleting intratumoral MDSCs, was successfully expressed and purified. Our results imply that it could be considered as a potential tool for research on cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vahid Khaki-Bakhtiarvand
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jafar Mahmoudian
- Monoclonal Antibody Research Center, Avicenna Research Institute, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Asgarian-Omran
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Fazel Shokri
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hojjat-Farsangi
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, BioClinicum, Karolinska University Hospital Solna and Karolinska Institute, 17164, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mahmood Jeddi-Tehrani
- Monoclonal Antibody Research Center, Avicenna Research Institute, ACECR, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mahdi Shabani
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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7
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Cho J, Tae N, Ahn JH, Chang SY, Ko HJ, Kim DH. Bispecific Antibody-Bound T Cells as a Novel Anticancer Immunotherapy. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2022; 30:418-426. [PMID: 35577765 PMCID: PMC9424331 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2022.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy is one of the promising anticancer treatments. It shows a high overall response rate with complete response to blood cancer. However, there is a limitation to solid tumor treatment. Additionally, this currently approved therapy exhibits side effects such as cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity. Alternatively, bispecific antibody is an innovative therapeutic tool that simultaneously engages specific immune cells to disease-related target cells. Since programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) is an immune checkpoint molecule highly expressed in some cancer cells, in the current study, we generated αCD3xαPD-L1 bispecific antibody (BiTE) which can engage T cells to PD-L1+ cancer cells. We observed that the BiTE-bound OT-1 T cells effectively killed cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. They substantially increased the recruitment of effector memory CD8+ T cells having CD8+CD44+CD62Llow phenotype in tumor. Interestingly, we also observed that BiTE-bound polyclonal T cells showed highly efficacious tumor killing activity in vivo in comparison with the direct intravenous treatment of bispecific antibody, suggesting that PD-L1-directed migration and engagement of activated T cells might increase cancer cell killing. Additionally, BiTE-bound CAR-T cells which targets human Her-2/neu exhibited enhanced killing effect on Her-2-expressing cancer cells in vivo, suggesting that this could be a novel therapeutic regimen. Collectively, our results suggested that engaging activated T cells with cancer cells using αCD3xαPD-L1 BiTE could be an innovative next generation anticancer therapy which exerts simultaneous inhibitory functions on PD-L1 as well as increasing the infiltration of activated T cells having effector memory phenotype in tumor site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaewon Cho
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Nara Tae
- Kangwon Institute of Inclusive Technology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hee Ahn
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun-Young Chang
- College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Jeong Ko
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea.,Kangwon Institute of Inclusive Technology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Hee Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea.,Kangwon Institute of Inclusive Technology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
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8
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Holterhus M, Altvater B, Kailayangiri S, Rossig C. The Cellular Tumor Immune Microenvironment of Childhood Solid Cancers: Informing More Effective Immunotherapies. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14092177. [PMID: 35565307 PMCID: PMC9105669 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14092177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Common pediatric solid cancers fail to respond to standard immuno-oncology agents relying on preexisting adaptive antitumor immune responses. The adoptive transfer of tumor-antigen specific T cells, such as CAR-gene modified T cells, is an attractive strategy, but its efficacy has been limited. Evidence is accumulating that local barriers in the tumor microenvironment prevent the infiltration of T cells and impede therapeutic immune responses. A thorough understanding of the components of the functional compartment of the tumor microenvironment and their interaction could inform effective combination therapies and novel engineered therapeutics, driving immunotherapy towards its full potential in pediatric patients. This review summarizes current knowledge on the cellular composition and significance of the tumor microenvironment in common extracranial solid cancers of childhood and adolescence, such as embryonal tumors and bone and soft tissue sarcomas, with a focus on myeloid cell populations that are often present in abundance in these tumors. Strategies to (co)target immunosuppressive myeloid cell populations with pharmacological anticancer agents and with selective antagonists are presented, as well as novel concepts aiming to employ myeloid cells to cooperate with antitumor T cell responses.
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9
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Sheida F, Razi S, Keshavarz-Fathi M, Rezaei N. The role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in lung cancer and targeted immunotherapies. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2021; 22:65-81. [PMID: 34821533 DOI: 10.1080/14737140.2022.2011224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Lung cancer is the deadliest cancer in both sexes combined globally due to significant delays in diagnosis and poor survival. Despite advances in the treatment of lung cancer, the overall outcomes remain poor and traditional chemotherapy fails to provide long-term benefits for many patients. Therefore, new treatment strategies are needed to increase overall survival. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are immunosuppressive cells taking part in lung cancer, as has been described in other types of tumors. MDSCs immunosuppressive activity is mediated by arginases (ARG-1 and ARG-2), nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS), peroxynitrite, PD-1/PD-L1 axis, and different cytokines. MDSCs can be a target for lung cancer immunotherapy by inducing their differentiation into mature myeloid cells, elimination, attenuation of their function, and inhibition of their accumulation. AREAS COVERED In this review, the immunosuppressive function of MDSCs, their role in lung cancer, and strategies to target them, which could result in increased efficacy of immunotherapy in patients with lung cancer, are discussed. EXPERT OPINION Identification of important mechanisms and upstream pathways involved in MDSCs functions paves the way for further preclinical and clinical lung cancer research, which could lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fateme Sheida
- Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Sepideh Razi
- Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahsa Keshavarz-Fathi
- Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.,Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Cancer Immunology Project (CIP), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Stockholm, Sweden
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10
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Zhou L, Liu H, Liu K, Wei S. Gold Compounds and the Anticancer Immune Response. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:739481. [PMID: 34588987 PMCID: PMC8473785 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.739481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gold compounds are not only well-explored for cytotoxic effects on tumors, but are also known to interact with the cancer immune system. The immune system deploys innate and adaptive mechanisms to protect against pathogens and prevent malignant transformation. The combined action of gold compounds with the activated immune system has shown promising results in cancer therapy through in vivo and in vitro experiments. Gold compounds are known to induce innate immune responses; however, these responses may contribute to adaptive immune responses. Gold compounds play the role of a major hapten that acts synergistically in innate immunity. Gold compounds support cancer cell antigenicity and promote anti-tumor immune response by inducing the release of CRT, ATP, HMGB1, HSP, and NKG2D to enhance immunogenicity. Gold compounds affect various immune cells (including suppressor regulatory T cells), inhibit myeloid derived suppressor cells, and enhance the function and number of dendritic cells. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have potential for improving the effect of immunotherapy and reducing the toxicity and side effects of the treatment process. Thus, AuNPs provide an ideal opportunity for exploring the combination of anticancer gold compounds and immunotherapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Zhou
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Huiguo Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Kui Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Shuang Wei
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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11
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Cao D, Naiyila X, Li J, Huang Y, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Ai J, Yang L, Liu L, Wei Q. Potential Strategies to Improve the Effectiveness of Drug Therapy by Changing Factors Related to Tumor Microenvironment. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:705280. [PMID: 34447750 PMCID: PMC8383319 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.705280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A tumor microenvironment (TME) is composed of various cell types and extracellular components. It contains tumor cells and is nourished by a network of blood vessels. The TME not only plays a significant role in the occurrence, development, and metastasis of tumors but also has a far-reaching impact on the effect of therapeutics. Continuous interaction between tumor cells and the environment, which is mediated by their environment, may lead to drug resistance. In this review, we focus on the key cellular components of the TME and the potential strategies to improve the effectiveness of drug therapy by changing their related factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dehong Cao
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaokaiti Naiyila
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jinze Li
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yin Huang
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zeyu Chen
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Bo Chen
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jin Li
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jianbing Guo
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiang Dong
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jianzhong Ai
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Lu Yang
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Liangren Liu
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiang Wei
- Department of Urology/Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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12
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Buzzatti G, Dellepiane C, Del Mastro L. New emerging targets in cancer immunotherapy: the role of GITR. ESMO Open 2021; 4:e000738. [PMID: 32817129 PMCID: PMC7451269 DOI: 10.1136/esmoopen-2020-000738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, immunotherapies have revolutionised anticancer treatment. However, there is still a number of patients that do not respond or acquire resistance to these treatments. Despite several efforts to combine immunotherapy with other strategies like chemotherapy, or other immunotherapy, there is an 'urgent' need to better understand the immune landscape of the tumour microenvironment. New promising approaches, in addition to blocking co-inhibitory pathways, such those cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 and programmed cell death protein 1 mediated, consist of activating co-stimulatory pathways to enhance antitumour immune responses. Among several new targets, glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related gene (GITR) activation can promote effector T-cell function and inhibit regulatory T-cell (Treg) function. Preclinical data on GITR-agonist monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) demonstrated antitumour activity in vitro and in vivo enhancing CD8+ and CD4+ effector T-cell activity and depleting tumour-infiltrating Tregs. Phase I clinical trials reported a manageable safety profile of GITR mAbs. However, monotherapy seems not to be effective, whereas responses have been reported in combination therapy, in particular adding PD-1 blockade. Several clinical studies are ongoing and results are awaited to further develop GITR-stimulating treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Buzzatti
- U.O. Oncologia Medica 2, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy.
| | - Chiara Dellepiane
- U.O. Oncologia Medica 2, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
| | - Lucia Del Mastro
- U.O. Breast Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy
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13
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Ciccolella M, Andreone S, Mancini J, Sestili P, Negri D, Pacca AM, D’Urso MT, Macchia D, Canese R, Pang K, SaiYing Ko T, Decadt Y, Schiavoni G, Mattei F, Belardelli F, Aricò E, Bracci L. Anticancer Effects of Sublingual Type I IFN in Combination with Chemotherapy in Implantable and Spontaneous Tumor Models. Cells 2021; 10:845. [PMID: 33917958 PMCID: PMC8068355 DOI: 10.3390/cells10040845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Salivary gland tumors are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms representing less than 10% of all head and neck tumors. Among salivary gland tumors, salivary duct carcinoma (SDC) is a rare, but highly aggressive malignant tumor resembling ductal breast carcinoma. Sublingual treatments are promising for SDC due to the induction of both local and systemic biological effects and to reduced systemic toxicity compared to other administration routes. In the present study, we first established that the sublingual administration of type I IFN (IFN-I) is safe and feasible, and exerts antitumor effects both as monotherapy and in combination with chemotherapy in transplantable tumor models, i.e., B16-OVA melanoma and EG.7-OVA lymphoma. Subsequently, we proved that sublingual IFN-I in combination with cyclophosphamide (CTX) induces a long-lasting reduction of tumor mass in NeuT transgenic mice that spontaneously develop SDC. Most importantly, tumor shrinkage in NeuT transgenic micewas accompanied by the emergence of tumor-specific cellular immune responses both in the blood and in the tumor tissue. Altogether, these results provide evidence that sublingual IFN holds promise in combination with chemotherapy for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ciccolella
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.C.); (S.A.); (J.M.); (G.S.); (F.M.)
| | - Sara Andreone
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.C.); (S.A.); (J.M.); (G.S.); (F.M.)
| | - Jacopo Mancini
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.C.); (S.A.); (J.M.); (G.S.); (F.M.)
| | - Paola Sestili
- National Center for the Control and Evaluation of Medicines, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Donatella Negri
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Anna Maria Pacca
- Animal Research and Welfare Centre, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.M.P.); (M.T.D.); (D.M.)
| | - Maria Teresa D’Urso
- Animal Research and Welfare Centre, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.M.P.); (M.T.D.); (D.M.)
| | - Daniele Macchia
- Animal Research and Welfare Centre, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (A.M.P.); (M.T.D.); (D.M.)
| | - Rossella Canese
- Core Facilities, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Ken Pang
- Biolingus AG, CH-6052 Hergiswil NW, Switzerland; (K.P.); (T.S.K.); (Y.D.)
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Parkville 3052, Australia
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville 3052, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia
| | - Thomas SaiYing Ko
- Biolingus AG, CH-6052 Hergiswil NW, Switzerland; (K.P.); (T.S.K.); (Y.D.)
| | - Yves Decadt
- Biolingus AG, CH-6052 Hergiswil NW, Switzerland; (K.P.); (T.S.K.); (Y.D.)
| | - Giovanna Schiavoni
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.C.); (S.A.); (J.M.); (G.S.); (F.M.)
| | - Fabrizio Mattei
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.C.); (S.A.); (J.M.); (G.S.); (F.M.)
| | - Filippo Belardelli
- Institute of Translational Pharmacology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 00133 Rome, Italy;
| | - Eleonora Aricò
- Core Facilities, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | - Laura Bracci
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Rome, Italy; (M.C.); (S.A.); (J.M.); (G.S.); (F.M.)
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14
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Cui C, Lan P, Fu L. The role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in gastrointestinal cancer. Cancer Commun (Lond) 2021; 41:442-471. [PMID: 33773092 PMCID: PMC8211353 DOI: 10.1002/cac2.12156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) cancer encompasses a range of malignancies that originate in the digestive system, which together represent the most common form of cancer diagnosed worldwide. However, despite numerous advances in both diagnostics and treatment, the incidence and mortality rate of GI cancer are on the rise. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous population of immature myeloid cells that increase in number under certain pathological conditions, such as infection and inflammation, and this expansion is of particular relevance to cancer. MDSCs are heavily involved in the regulation of the immune system and act to dampen its response to tumors, favoring the escape of tumor cells from immunosurveillance and increasing both metastasis and recurrence. Several recent studies have supported the use of MDSCs as a prognostic and predictive biomarker in patients with cancer, and potentially as a novel treatment target. In the present review, the mechanisms underlying the immunosuppressive functions of MDSCs are described, and recent researches concerning the involvement of MDSCs in the progression, prognosis, and therapies of GI cancer are reviewed. The aim of this work was to present the development of novel treatments targeting MDSCs in GI cancer in the hope of improving outcomes for patients with this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Cui
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and International Cancer Centre, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, P. R. China
| | - Penglin Lan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and International Cancer Centre, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, P. R. China
| | - Li Fu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Regional Immunity and Diseases, Department of Pharmacology and International Cancer Centre, Shenzhen University School of Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, P. R. China
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15
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Sonowal H, Saxena A, Qiu S, Srivastava S, Ramana KV. Aldose reductase regulates doxorubicin-induced immune and inflammatory responses by activating mitochondrial biogenesis. Eur J Pharmacol 2021; 895:173884. [PMID: 33482179 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.173884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
We have recently demonstrated that aldose reductase (AR) inhibitor; fidarestat prevents doxorubicin (Dox)-induced cardiotoxic side effects and inflammation in vitro and in vivo. However, the effect of fidarestat and its combination with Dox on immune cell activation and the immunomodulatory effects are not known. In this study, we examined the immunomodulatory effects of fidarestat in combination with Dox in vivo and in vitro. We observed that fidarestat decreased Dox-induced upregulation of CD11b in THP-1 monocytes. Fidarestat further attenuated Dox-induced upregulation of IL-6, IL-1β, and Nos2 in murine BMDM. Fidarestat also attenuated Dox-induced activation and infiltration of multiple subsets of inflammatory immune cells identified by expression of markers CD11b+, CD11b+F4/80+, Ly6C+CCR2high, and Ly6C+CD11b+ in the mouse spleen and liver. Furthermore, significant upregulation of markers of mitochondrial biogenesis PGC-1α, COX IV, TFAM, and phosphorylation of AMPKα1 (Ser485) was observed in THP-1 cells and livers of mice treated with Dox in combination with fidarestat. Our results suggest that fidarestat by up-regulating mitochondrial biogenesis exerts protection against Dox-induced immune and inflammatory responses in vitro and in vivo, providing further evidence for developing fidarestat as a combination agent with anthracycline drugs to prevent chemotherapy-induced inflammation and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himangshu Sonowal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA.
| | - Ashish Saxena
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA
| | - Sumin Qiu
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA
| | - Sanjay Srivastava
- Department of Environmental Cardiology, University of Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Kota V Ramana
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, 77555, USA.
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16
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Wang Y, Ding Y, Deng Y, Zheng Y, Wang S. Role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the promotion and immunotherapy of colitis-associated cancer. J Immunother Cancer 2020; 8:jitc-2020-000609. [PMID: 33051339 PMCID: PMC7555106 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2020-000609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Colitis-associated cancer (CAC) is a specific type of colorectal cancer that develops from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous population of immature myeloid cells that are essential for the pathological processes of inflammation and cancer. Accumulating evidence indicates that MDSCs play different but vital roles during IBD and CAC development and impede CAC immunotherapy. New insights into the regulatory network of MDSCs in the CAC pathogenesis are opening new avenues for developing strategies to enhance the effectiveness of CAC treatment. In this review, we explore the role of MDSCs in chronic inflammation, dysplasia and CAC and summarize the potential CAC therapeutic strategies based on MDSC blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yungang Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First People's Hospital of Yancheng, Nanjing University Medical School, Yancheng, China
| | - Yanxia Ding
- Department of Dermatology, The First People's Hospital of Yancheng, Nanjing University Medical School, Yancheng, China
| | - Yijun Deng
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First People's Hospital of Yancheng, Nanjing University Medical School, Yancheng, China
| | - Yu Zheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First People's Hospital of Yancheng, Nanjing University Medical School, Yancheng, China
| | - Shengjun Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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17
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Jeon I, Lee JM, Shin KS, Kang T, Park MH, Seo H, Song B, Koh CH, Choi J, Shin YK, Kim BS, Kang CY. Enhanced Immunogenicity of Engineered HER2 Antigens Potentiates Antitumor Immune Responses. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030403. [PMID: 32707803 PMCID: PMC7563373 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
For cancer vaccines, the selection of optimal tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) that can maximize the immunogenicity of the vaccine without causing unwanted adverse effects is challenging. In this study, we developed two engineered Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) antigens, K965 and K1117, and compared their immunogenicity to a previously reported truncated HER2 antigen, K684, within a B cell and monocyte-based vaccine (BVAC). We found that BVAC-K965 and BVAC-K1117 induced comparable antigen-specific antibody responses and antigen-specific T cell responses to BVAC-K684. Interestingly, BVAC-K1117 induced more potent antitumor activity than the other vaccines in murine CT26-HER2 tumor models. In addition, BVAC-K1117 showed enhanced antitumor effects against truncated p95HER2-expressing CT26 tumors compared to BVAC-K965 and BVAC-K684 based on the survival analysis by inducing T cell responses against intracellular domain (ICD) epitopes. The increased ICD epitope-specific T cell responses induced by BVAC-K1117 compared to BVAC-K965 and BVAC-K684 were recapitulated in human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-untyped human PBMCs and HLA-A*0201 PBMCs. Furthermore, we also observed synergistic antitumor effects between BVAC-K1117 and anti-PD-L1 antibody treatment against CT26-HER2 tumors. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that inclusion of a sufficient number of ICD epitopes of HER2 in cellular vaccines can improve the antitumor activity of the vaccine and provide a way to optimize the efficacy of anticancer cellular vaccines targeting HER2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insu Jeon
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Jeong-Mi Lee
- Laboratory of Immunology, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (J.-M.L.); (C.-H.K.)
| | - Kwang-Soo Shin
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Taeseung Kang
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Myung Hwan Park
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Hyungseok Seo
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Boyeong Song
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Choong-Hyun Koh
- Laboratory of Immunology, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (J.-M.L.); (C.-H.K.)
| | - Jeongwon Choi
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Young Kee Shin
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
| | - Byung-Seok Kim
- Division of Life Sciences, College of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea;
| | - Chang-Yuil Kang
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (I.J.); (K.-S.S.); (T.K.); (M.H.P.); (H.S.); (B.S.); (J.C.); (Y.K.S.)
- Laboratory of Immunology, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (J.-M.L.); (C.-H.K.)
- Cellid, Inc., Seoul 08826, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-880-7860
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18
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Tran TH, Tran TTP, Truong DH, Nguyen HT, Pham TT, Yong CS, Kim JO. Toll-like receptor-targeted particles: A paradigm to manipulate the tumor microenvironment for cancer immunotherapy. Acta Biomater 2019; 94:82-96. [PMID: 31129358 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on antigen presenting cells, especially dendritic cells, offers several sensitive mediators to trigger an adaptive immune response, which potentially can be exploited to detect and eliminate pathogenic objects. Consequently, numerous agonists that target TLRs are being used clinically either alone or in combination with other therapies to strengthen the immune system in the battle against cancer. This review summarizes the roles of TLRs in tumor biology, and focuses on relevant TLR-dependent antitumor pathways and the conjugation of TLR agonists as adjuvants to nano- and micro-particles for boosting responses leading to cancer suppression and eradication. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which express on antigen presenting cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages, play an important role in sensing pathogenic agents and inducing adaptive immunity. As a result, several TLR agonists have been investigating as therapeutic agents individually or in combination with other treatment modalities for cancer treatment through boosting the immune system. This review aims to focus on the roles of TLRs in cancer and TLR-dependent antitumor pathways as well as the use of different nano- or micro-particles bearing TLR agonists for tumor inhibition and elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuan Hiep Tran
- Department for Management of Science and Technology Development, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Faculty of Pharmacy, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
| | - Thi Thu Phuong Tran
- The Institute of Molecular Genetics of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Duy Hieu Truong
- Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam.
| | - Hanh Thuy Nguyen
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Tung Thanh Pham
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul Soon Yong
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Oh Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea.
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19
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Abstract
The recent development of effective immune checkpoint inhibition (ICI), first demonstrated in melanoma, has revolutionized cancer treatment. Monoclonal antibodies blocking the immune checkpoints cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death 1 receptor (PD-1) have shown substantial clinical benefit in a subset of patients across tumor types and in both the metastatic and adjuvant settings. In this article, we review the interaction between the immune system and solid tumors, and describe modes of immune response failure and the physiologic role of immune checkpoints. We also review the known mechanisms of immune checkpoint inhibitors, focusing on US FDA-approved agents targeting CTLA-4 and PD-1. Within this framework, we classify hypothesized tumor intrinsic and extrinsic predictive markers for response and resistance to ICI, and map them to their putative underlying biological mechanism. Finally, we outline future directions in ICI, including the development of new therapeutic targets, rational combination therapies, integrated predictive models for individual patients to optimize therapy, and expansion into different disease types.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Liu
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Yawkey 7E, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Russell W Jenkins
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Yawkey 7E, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Ryan J Sullivan
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Yawkey 7E, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
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20
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Kim NR, Kim YJ. Oxaliplatin regulates myeloid-derived suppressor cell-mediated immunosuppression via downregulation of nuclear factor-κB signaling. Cancer Med 2018; 8:276-288. [PMID: 30592157 PMCID: PMC6346236 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.1878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 10/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid‐derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) represent one of the major types of immunoregulatory cells present under abnormal conditions, including cancer. These cells are characterized by their immature phenotype and suppressive effect on various immune effectors. In both human and mouse, there are two main subsets of MDSCs: polymorphonuclear (PMN)‐MDSCs and mononuclear (Mo)‐MDSCs. Thus, strategies to regulate MDSC‐mediated immunosuppression could result in the enhancement of anticancer immune responses. Oxaliplatin, a platinum‐based anticancer agent, is widely used in clinical settings. It is known to induce cell death by interfering with double‐stranded DNA and interrupting its replication and transcription. In this study, we found that oxaliplatin has the potential to regulate MDSC‐mediated immunosuppression in cancer. First, oxaliplatin selectively depleted MDSCs, especially Mo‐MDSCs, but only minimally affected T cells. In addition, sublethal doses of oxaliplatin eliminated the immunosuppressive capacity of MDSCs and induced the differentiation of MDSCs into mature cells. Oxaliplatin treatment diminished the expression of the immunosuppressive functional mediators arginase 1 (ARG1) and NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2) in MDSCs, while an MDSC‐depleting agent, gemcitabine, did not downregulate these factors significantly. Oxaliplatin‐conditioned MDSCs had no tumor‐promoting activity in vivo. In addition, oxaliplatin modulated the intracellular NF‐κB signaling in MDSCs. Thus, oxaliplatin has the potential to be used as an immunoregulatory agent as well as a cytotoxic drug in cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na-Rae Kim
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Pharmacy, Inje University, Gimhae, Korea
| | - Yeon-Jeong Kim
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Pharmacy, Inje University, Gimhae, Korea.,Inje Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Inje University, Gimhae, Korea
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21
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Riccardi C, Ronchetti S, Nocentini G. Glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related gene (GITR) as a therapeutic target for immunotherapy. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2018; 22:783-797. [DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2018.1512588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Riccardi
- Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
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22
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Yagiz K, Rodriguez-Aguirre ME, Lopez Espinoza F, Montellano TT, Mendoza D, Mitchell LA, Ibanez CE, Kasahara N, Gruber HE, Jolly DJ, Robbins JM. A Retroviral Replicating Vector Encoding Cytosine Deaminase and 5-FC Induces Immune Memory in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Models. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2018; 8:14-26. [PMID: 29322091 PMCID: PMC5751967 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of tumors with Toca 511, a gamma retroviral replicating vector encoding cytosine deaminase, followed by 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) kills tumors by local production of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). In brain tumor models, this treatment induces systemic anti-tumor immune responses and long-term immune-mediated survival. Phase 1 Toca 511 and Toca FC (extended-release 5-FC) clinical trials in patients with recurrent high-grade glioma show durable complete responses and promising survival data compared to historic controls. The work described herein served to expand on our earlier findings in two models of metastatic colorectal carcinoma (mCRC). Intravenous (i.v.) delivery of Toca 511 resulted in substantial tumor-selective uptake of vector into metastatic lesions. Subsequent treatment with 5-FC resulted in tumor shrinkage, improved survival, and immune memory against future rechallenge with the same CT26 CRC cell line. Similar results were seen in a brain metastasis model of mCRC. Of note, 5-FC treatment resulted in a significant decrease in myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in mCRC tumors in both the liver and brain. These results support the development of Toca 511 and Toca FC as a novel immunotherapeutic approach for patients with mCRC. A phase 1 study of i.v. Toca 511 and Toca FC in solid tumors, including mCRC, is currently underway (NCT02576665).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kader Yagiz
- Tocagen Inc., 3030 Bunker Hill St., Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | | | | | | | - Daniel Mendoza
- Tocagen Inc., 3030 Bunker Hill St., Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | - Leah A. Mitchell
- Tocagen Inc., 3030 Bunker Hill St., Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | - Carlos E. Ibanez
- Tocagen Inc., 3030 Bunker Hill St., Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | - Noriyuki Kasahara
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Harry E. Gruber
- Tocagen Inc., 3030 Bunker Hill St., Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | - Douglas J. Jolly
- Tocagen Inc., 3030 Bunker Hill St., Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | - Joan M. Robbins
- Tocagen Inc., 3030 Bunker Hill St., Suite 230, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
- DNAtrix, Inc., 2450 Holcombe Boulevard, Suite X+ 200, Houston, TX 77021, USA
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23
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Immunosuppressive Role of Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells and Therapeutic Targeting in Lung Cancer. J Immunol Res 2018; 2018:6319649. [PMID: 29765990 PMCID: PMC5889862 DOI: 10.1155/2018/6319649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death worldwide due to its late diagnosis and poor outcome. Immunotherapy is becoming more and more encouraging and promising in lung cancer therapy. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are the main tumor suppressor factors, and the treatment strategy of targeting MDSCs is gradually emerging. In this review, we summarize what is currently known about the role of MDSCs in lung cancer. In view of the emerging importance of MDSCs in lung cancer, the treatment of targeting MDSCs will be useful to the control of the development and progression of lung cancer. However, the occurrence, metastasis, and survival of cancer is the result of multiple factors and multiple mechanisms, so combined treatments using different strategies will become the major therapy method for lung cancer in the future.
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24
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Nam J, Son S, Ochyl LJ, Kuai R, Schwendeman A, Moon JJ. Chemo-photothermal therapy combination elicits anti-tumor immunity against advanced metastatic cancer. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1074. [PMID: 29540781 PMCID: PMC5852008 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03473-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 506] [Impact Index Per Article: 84.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising cancer treatment modality, but PTT generally requires direct access to the source of light irradiation, thus precluding its utility against disseminated, metastatic tumors. Here, we demonstrate that PTT combined with chemotherapy can trigger potent anti-tumor immunity against disseminated tumors. Specifically, we have developed polydopamine-coated spiky gold nanoparticles as a new photothermal agent with extensive photothermal stability and efficiency. Strikingly, a single round of PTT combined with a sub-therapeutic dose of doxorubicin can elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses and eliminate local as well as untreated, distant tumors in >85% of animals bearing CT26 colon carcinoma. We also demonstrate their therapeutic efficacy against TC-1 submucosa-lung metastasis, a highly aggressive model for advanced head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Our study sheds new light on a previously unrecognized, immunological facet of chemo-photothermal therapy and may lead to new therapeutic strategies against advanced cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jutaek Nam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Sejin Son
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Lukasz J Ochyl
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Rui Kuai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Anna Schwendeman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - James J Moon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
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25
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Zhang M, Kim JA, Huang AYC. Optimizing Tumor Microenvironment for Cancer Immunotherapy: β-Glucan-Based Nanoparticles. Front Immunol 2018; 9:341. [PMID: 29535722 PMCID: PMC5834761 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is revolutionizing cancer treatment. Recent clinical success with immune checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, and adoptive immune cellular therapies has generated excitement and new hopes for patients and investigators. However, clinically efficacious responses to cancer immunotherapy occur only in a minority of patients. One reason is the tumor microenvironment (TME), which potently inhibits the generation and delivery of optimal antitumor immune responses. As our understanding of TME continues to grow, strategies are being developed to change the TME toward one that augments the emergence of strong antitumor immunity. These strategies include eliminating tumor bulk to provoke the release of tumor antigens, using adjuvants to enhance antigen-presenting cell function, and employ agents that enhance immune cell effector activity. This article reviews the development of β-glucan and β-glucan-based nanoparticles as immune modulators of TME, as well as their potential benefit and future therapeutic applications. Cell-wall β-glucans from natural sources including plant, fungi, and bacteria are molecules that adopt pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) known to target specific receptors on immune cell subsets. Emerging data suggest that the TME can be actively manipulated by β-glucans and their related nanoparticles. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of conditioning TME using β-glucan and β-glucan-based nanoparticles, and how this strategy enables future design of optimal combination cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Seidman Cancer Center, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Julian A. Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Seidman Cancer Center, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Alex Yee-Chen Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Division of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, United States
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26
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Shah NJ, Kelly WJ, Liu SV, Choquette K, Spira A. Product review on the Anti-PD-L1 antibody atezolizumab. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017; 14:269-276. [PMID: 29194007 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1403694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy as a therapeutic strategy has seized the narrative throughout clinical oncology over the past few years. Once considered a niche treatment for rare cancers, immunotherapy has quickly emerged as the standard of care for many common cancer types. The remarkable rise is largely due to the development of novel checkpoint inhibitors, specifically, antibodies targeting PD-1 and PD-L1. Offering promising efficacy with a favorable toxicity profile, these agents have been approved for use in several malignancies and are under investigation for many more. One of the more appealing features is the chance for meaningful, durable response - uncharacteristic for most cancer therapies. Atezolizumab is a humanized IgG1 monoclonal antibody that targets PD-L1. Atezolizumab has been approved for use in the treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and bladder cancer and has shown promising activity in several other types of cancer. Here, we provide a product review for atezolizumab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil J Shah
- a Division of Hematology Oncology , Georgetown University Medical Center, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center , Washington, DC , USA
| | - William J Kelly
- a Division of Hematology Oncology , Georgetown University Medical Center, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center , Washington, DC , USA
| | - Stephen V Liu
- a Division of Hematology Oncology , Georgetown University Medical Center, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center , Washington, DC , USA
| | - Karin Choquette
- b Virginia Cancer Specialists Research Institute , Fairfax , VA , USA
| | - Alexander Spira
- b Virginia Cancer Specialists Research Institute , Fairfax , VA , USA
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27
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Steggerda SM, Bennett MK, Chen J, Emberley E, Huang T, Janes JR, Li W, MacKinnon AL, Makkouk A, Marguier G, Murray PJ, Neou S, Pan A, Parlati F, Rodriguez MLM, Van de Velde LA, Wang T, Works M, Zhang J, Zhang W, Gross MI. Inhibition of arginase by CB-1158 blocks myeloid cell-mediated immune suppression in the tumor microenvironment. J Immunother Cancer 2017; 5:101. [PMID: 29254508 PMCID: PMC5735564 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-017-0308-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Myeloid cells are an abundant leukocyte in many types of tumors and contribute to immune evasion. Expression of the enzyme arginase 1 (Arg1) is a defining feature of immunosuppressive myeloid cells and leads to depletion of L-arginine, a nutrient required for T cell and natural killer (NK) cell proliferation. Here we use CB-1158, a potent and orally-bioavailable small-molecule inhibitor of arginase, to investigate the role of Arg1 in regulating anti-tumor immunity. Methods CB-1158 was tested for the ability to block myeloid cell-mediated inhibition of T cell proliferation in vitro, and for tumor growth inhibition in syngeneic mouse models of cancer as a single agent and in combination with other therapies. Tumors from animals treated with CB-1158 were profiled for changes in immune cell subsets, expression of immune-related genes, and cytokines. Human tumor tissue microarrays were probed for Arg1 expression by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Cancer patient plasma samples were assessed for Arg1 protein and L-arginine by ELISA and mass spectrometry, respectively. Results CB-1158 blocked myeloid cell-mediated suppression of T cell proliferation in vitro and reduced tumor growth in multiple mouse models of cancer, as a single agent and in combination with checkpoint blockade, adoptive T cell therapy, adoptive NK cell therapy, and the chemotherapy agent gemcitabine. Profiling of the tumor microenvironment revealed that CB-1158 increased tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells and NK cells, inflammatory cytokines, and expression of interferon-inducible genes. Patient tumor samples from multiple histologies expressed an abundance of tumor-infiltrating Arg1+ myeloid cells. Plasma samples from cancer patients exhibited elevated Arg1 and reduced L-arginine compared to healthy volunteers. Conclusions These results demonstrate that Arg1 is a key mediator of immune suppression and that inhibiting Arg1 with CB-1158 shifts the immune landscape toward a pro-inflammatory environment, blunting myeloid cell-mediated immune evasion and reducing tumor growth. Furthermore, our results suggest that arginase blockade by CB-1158 may be an effective therapy in multiple types of cancer and combining CB-1158 with standard-of-care chemotherapy or other immunotherapies may yield improved clinical responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne M Steggerda
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA.
| | - Mark K Bennett
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Jason Chen
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Ethan Emberley
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Tony Huang
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Julie R Janes
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Weiqun Li
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Andrew L MacKinnon
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Amani Makkouk
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Gisele Marguier
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Peter J Murray
- Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany.,Departments of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Silinda Neou
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Alison Pan
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Francesco Parlati
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Mirna L M Rodriguez
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Lee-Ann Van de Velde
- Departments of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Tracy Wang
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Melissa Works
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Jing Zhang
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Winter Zhang
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Matthew I Gross
- Calithera Biosciences, 343 Oyster Point Boulevard, Suite 200, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
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28
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Kim YI, Lee BR, Cheon JH, Kwon BE, Kweon MN, Ko HJ, Chang SY. Compensatory roles of CD8+ T cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in gut immune regulation for reduced function of CD4+ Tregs. Oncotarget 2017; 7:10947-61. [PMID: 26908454 PMCID: PMC4905450 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.7510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4+ Tregs need to migrate from the mucosal periphery into the draining lymph node via CCR7 to exert their suppressive effects. In this study, we investigated whether CCR7 deficiency resulted in failure of immune suppression in 2% dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis. Unexpectedly, intestinal inflammation was not exacerbated in the absence of CCR7. Expression of IL-10, a representative suppressive cytokine, was enhanced in CCR7KO CD8+ T cells. Colon CCR7KO CD8+ T cells reduced the activation of CD4+ T cells. Depletion of CD8+ T cells using anti-CD8 antibody exacerbated colitis in CCR7KO mice. Plasmacytoid dendritic cell numbers were also slightly increased during intestinal inflammation in the absence of CCR7, and the depletion of those cells exacerbated DSS-induced colitis in CCR7KO mice. These results suggest that CD8+ T cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells have compensatory roles in immune regulation in the gut for impaired function of CD4+ Tregs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-In Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon, Korea
| | - Bo-Ra Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Jae-Hee Cheon
- Department of Internal Medicine and Institute of Gastroenterology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Bo-Eun Kwon
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Mi-Na Kweon
- Mucosal Immunology Laboratory, Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyun-Jeong Ko
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
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29
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30
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Kareva I. A Combination of Immune Checkpoint Inhibition with Metronomic Chemotherapy as a Way of Targeting Therapy-Resistant Cancer Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E2134. [PMID: 29027915 PMCID: PMC5666816 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18102134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic resistance remains a major obstacle in treating many cancers, particularly in advanced stages. It is likely that cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs) have the potential to eliminate therapy-resistant cancer cells. However, their effectiveness may be limited either by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, or by immune cell death induced by cytotoxic treatments. High-frequency low-dose (also known as metronomic) chemotherapy can help improve the activity of CTLs by providing sufficient stimulation for cytotoxic immune cells without excessive depletion. Additionally, therapy-induced removal of tumor cells that compete for shared nutrients may also facilitate tumor infiltration by CTLs, further improving prognosis. Metronomic chemotherapy can also decrease the number of immunosuppressive cells in the tumor microenvironment, including regulatory T cells (Tregs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Immune checkpoint inhibition can further augment anti-tumor immune responses by maintaining T cells in an activated state. Combining immune checkpoint inhibition with metronomic administration of chemotherapeutic drugs may create a synergistic effect that augments anti-tumor immune responses and clears metabolic competition. This would allow immune-mediated elimination of therapy-resistant cancer cells, an effect that may be unattainable by using either therapeutic modality alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Kareva
- Mathematical and Computational Sciences Center, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA.
- EMD Serono Research and Development Institute, Merck KGaA, Billerica, MA 02370, USA.
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31
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Hu-Lieskovan S, Ribas A. New Combination Strategies Using Programmed Cell Death 1/Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 Checkpoint Inhibitors as a Backbone. Cancer J 2017; 23:10-22. [PMID: 28114250 PMCID: PMC5844278 DOI: 10.1097/ppo.0000000000000246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of immune checkpoints and subsequent clinical development of checkpoint inhibitors have revolutionized the field of oncology. The durability of the antitumor immune responses has raised the hope for long-term patient survival and potential cure; however, currently, only a minority of patients respond. Combination strategies to help increase antigen release and T-cell priming, promote T-cell activation and homing, and improve the tumor immune microenvironment, all guided by predictive biomarkers, can help overcome the tumor immune-evasive mechanisms and maximize efficacy to ultimately benefit the majority of patients. Great challenges remain because of the complex underlying biology, unpredictable toxicity, and accurate assessment of response. Carefully designed clinical trials guided by translational studies of paired biopsies will be key to develop reliable predictive biomarkers to choose which patients would most likely benefit from each strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siwen Hu-Lieskovan
- From the Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
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32
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The potential and promise of IL-15 in immuno-oncogenic therapies. Immunol Lett 2017; 190:159-168. [PMID: 28823521 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
This review provides an in-depth description of the preclinical and clinical studies demonstrating the effectiveness and limitations of IL-15 and IL-15 analogs given as an exogenous immuno-oncology agent. IL-15 is a cytokine that primarily stimulates the proliferation and cytotoxic functions of CD8T cells and NK cells leading to enhanced anti-tumor responses. While initially showing promise as a cancer therapeutic, the efficacy of IL-15 was limited by its short in vivo half-life. More recently, various approaches have been developed to improve the in vivo half-life and efficacy of IL-15, largely by generating IL-15/IL-15Rα conjugates. These new IL-15 based agents renew the prospect of IL-15 as a cancer immunotherapeutic agent. While having some efficacy in inducing tumor regression as a monotherapy, IL-15 agents also show great potential in being used in combination with other immuno-oncological therapies. Indeed, IL-15 used in combination therapy yields even better anti-tumor responses and prolongs survival than IL-15 treatment alone in numerous murine cancer models. The promising results from these preclinical studies have led to the implementation of several clinical trials to test the safety and efficacy of IL-15-based agents as a stand-alone treatment or in conjunction with other therapies to treat both advanced solid tumors and hematological malignancies.
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33
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Ghinnagow R, Cruz LJ, Macho-Fernandez E, Faveeuw C, Trottein F. Enhancement of Adjuvant Functions of Natural Killer T Cells Using Nanovector Delivery Systems: Application in Anticancer Immune Therapy. Front Immunol 2017; 8:879. [PMID: 28798749 PMCID: PMC5529346 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Type I natural killer T (NKT) cells have gained considerable interest in anticancer immune therapy over the last decade. This “innate-like” T lymphocyte subset has the unique ability to recognize foreign and self-derived glycolipid antigens in association with the CD1d molecule expressed by antigen-presenting cells. An important property of these cells is to bridge innate and acquired immune responses. The adjuvant function of NKT cells might be exploited in the clinics. In this review, we discuss the approaches currently being used to target NKT cells for cancer therapy. In particular, we highlight ongoing strategies utilizing NKT cell-based nanovaccines to optimize immune therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reem Ghinnagow
- Univ. Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 8204, Lille, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1019, Lille, France.,Hospitalier Universitaire de Lille, Lille, France.,Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
| | - Luis Javier Cruz
- Translational Nanobiomaterials and Imaging, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Elodie Macho-Fernandez
- Univ. Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 8204, Lille, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1019, Lille, France.,Hospitalier Universitaire de Lille, Lille, France.,Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
| | - Christelle Faveeuw
- Univ. Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 8204, Lille, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1019, Lille, France.,Hospitalier Universitaire de Lille, Lille, France.,Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
| | - François Trottein
- Univ. Lille, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL - Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 8204, Lille, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1019, Lille, France.,Hospitalier Universitaire de Lille, Lille, France.,Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
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34
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Vandenabeele P, Vandecasteele K, Bachert C, Krysko O, Krysko DV. Immunogenic Apoptotic Cell Death and Anticancer Immunity. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 930:133-49. [PMID: 27558820 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-39406-0_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
For many years it has been thought that apoptotic cells rapidly cleared by phagocytic cells do not trigger an immune response but rather have anti-inflammatory properties. However, accumulating experimental data indicate that certain anticancer therapies can induce an immunogenic form of apoptosis associated with the emission of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which function as adjuvants to activate host antitumor immune responses. In this review, we will first discuss recent advances and the significance of danger signaling pathways involved in the emission of DAMPs, including calreticulin, ATP, and HMGB1. We will also emphasize that switching on a particular signaling pathway depends on the immunogenic cell death stimulus. Further, we address the role of ER stress in danger signaling and the classification of immunogenic cell death inducers in relation to how ER stress is triggered. In the final part, we discuss the role of radiotherapy-induced immunogenic apoptosis and the relationship of its immunogenicity to the fraction dose and concomitant chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Vandenabeele
- Molecular Signalling and Cell Death Unit, Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Methusalem program, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Katrien Vandecasteele
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Experimental Cancer Research, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Claus Bachert
- The Upper Airway Research Laboratory, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Olga Krysko
- The Upper Airway Research Laboratory, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dmitri V Krysko
- Molecular Signalling and Cell Death Unit, Inflammation Research Center, VIB, Ghent, Belgium. .,Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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35
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Kyi C, Postow MA. Immune checkpoint inhibitor combinations in solid tumors: opportunities and challenges. Immunotherapy 2017; 8:821-37. [PMID: 27349981 DOI: 10.2217/imt-2016-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of immune 'checkpoint inhibitors' such as cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death receptor 1 (PD-1) has revolutionized treatment of solid tumors including melanoma, lung cancer, among many others. The goal of checkpoint inhibitor combination therapy is to improve clinical response and minimize toxicities. Rational design of checkpoint combinations considers immune-mediated mechanisms of antitumor activity: immunogenic cell death, antigen release and presentation, activation of T-cell responses, lymphocytic infiltration into tumors and depletion of immunosuppression. Potential synergistic combinations include checkpoint blockade with conventional (radiation, chemotherapy and targeted therapies) and newer immunotherapies (cancer vaccines, oncolytic viruses, among others). Reliable biomarkers are necessary to define patients who will achieve best clinical benefit with minimal toxicity in combination therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrisann Kyi
- Tisch Cancer Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1079, NY 10029, USA
| | - Michael A Postow
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, NY 10065, USA.,Weill Cornell Medical College, 525 E 68th Street, NY 10065, USA
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36
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D'Angelo SP. Manipulating the Immune System With Checkpoint Inhibitors for Patients With Metastatic Sarcoma. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book 2017; 35:e558-64. [PMID: 27249767 DOI: 10.1200/edbk_161901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Sarcomas are a rare group of malignant tumors of mesenchymal origin that comprise 1% of all adult cancers. Despite initial surgery, distant metastatic disease will develop in approximately 25% of patients, and standard chemotherapy has limited durable efficacy. There is a dire need for more effective and less toxic therapies for the treatment of metastatic sarcoma. The immune system plays a major role in cancer control and progression. There have been tremendous breakthroughs in other malignancies by manipulating the immune system with checkpoint inhibitors. These agents, either alone or in combination with other approaches such as radiation, chemotherapy, targeted agents, or immunotherapeutics, have generally led to improved efficacy in selected malignancies thus far. Although promising, these drugs can cause specific immune-related adverse events that require prompt recognition and treatment. In addition, characterizing response and progression radiographically has become somewhat more challenging. Identifying predictive biomarkers of benefit will be essential. There remains optimism and hope that the strides made in other cancers will be emulated in sarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra P D'Angelo
- From the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY
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37
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Gemcitabine treatment enhanced the anti-tumor effect of cytokine induced killer cells by depletion of CD4+CD25bri regulatory T cells. Immunol Lett 2017; 181:36-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2016.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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38
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Funt SA, Rosenberg JE. Systemic, perioperative management of muscle-invasive bladder cancer and future horizons. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2016; 14:221-234. [PMID: 27874062 DOI: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2016.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Many patients diagnosed with muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) will develop distant metastatic disease. Over the past three decades, perioperative cisplatin-based chemotherapy has been investigated for its ability to reduce the number of deaths from bladder cancer. Insufficient evidence is available to fully support the use of such chemotherapy in the adjuvant setting; however, neoadjuvant cisplatin-based combination chemotherapy has become a standard of care for eligible patients based on the improved disease-specific and overall survival demonstrated in two randomized phase III trials, compared with surgery alone. For patients with disease downstaging to non-MIBC at the time of radical cystectomy as a result of neoadjuvant chemotherapy, outcomes are outstanding, with 5-year overall survival of 80-90%. Nevertheless, the inability to define before treatment the patients who will and those who will not achieve such a response has impeded the achievement of better outcomes for patients with MIBC. High-throughput DNA and RNA profiling technologies might help to overcome this barrier and enable a more-personalized approach to the use of cytotoxic neoadjuvant chemotherapy. In the past 2 years, trial results have demonstrated the unprecedented ability of immune- checkpoint blockade to induce durable remissions in patients with metastatic disease that has progressed after chemotherapy; studies are now urgently needed to determine how best to incorporate this powerful therapeutic modality into the care of patients with MIBC. Herein, we review the evolution of chemotherapy and immunotherapy for muscle-invasive bladder cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A Funt
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Jonathan E Rosenberg
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
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39
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Malignant melanoma—The cradle of anti-neoplastic immunotherapy. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2016; 106:25-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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40
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Pyzer AR, Cole L, Rosenblatt J, Avigan DE. Myeloid-derived suppressor cells as effectors of immune suppression in cancer. Int J Cancer 2016; 139:1915-26. [PMID: 27299510 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment consists of an immunosuppressive niche created by the complex interactions between cancer cells and surrounding stromal cells. A critical component of this environment are myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), a heterogeneous group of immature myeloid cells arrested at different stages of differentiation and expanded in response to a variety of tumor factors. MDSCs exert diverse effects in modulating the interactions between immune effector cells and the malignant cells. An increased presence of MDSCs is associated with tumor progression, poorer outcomes, and decreased effectiveness of immunotherapeutic strategies. In this article, we will review our current understanding of the mechanisms that underlie MDSC expansion and their immune-suppressive function. Finally, we review the preclinical studies and clinical trials that have attempted to target MDSCs, in order to improve responses to cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athalia Rachel Pyzer
- Bone Marrow Transplant, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Center for Life Sciences, CLS724, Boston, MA
| | - Leandra Cole
- Bone Marrow Transplant, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Center for Life Sciences, CLS724, Boston, MA
| | - Jacalyn Rosenblatt
- Bone Marrow Transplant, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Center for Life Sciences, CLS724, Boston, MA
| | - David E Avigan
- Bone Marrow Transplant, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Center for Life Sciences, CLS724, Boston, MA
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41
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Re-polarizing Myeloid-derived Suppressor Cells (MDSCs) with Cationic Polymers for Cancer Immunotherapy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24506. [PMID: 27074905 PMCID: PMC4830950 DOI: 10.1038/srep24506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Our evolving understandings of cell-material interactions provide insights for using polymers to modulate cell behaviour that may lead to therapeutic applications. It is known that in certain cancers, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) play vital roles in promoting tumour progression, chiefly because of their ‘alternatively activated’ (or M2) phenotype that orchestrates immunosuppression. In this study, we demonstrated that two cationic polymers – cationic dextran (C-dextran) and polyethyleneimine (PEI) – could directly remodel these cells into an anti-tumour, ‘classically activated’ (or M1) phenotype, thereby stimulating these cells to express tumouricidal cytokines, reactivating the T cell functions, and prolonging the lifespan of the mice model. Our investigations with knock-out mice further indicate that the functions of these cationic polymers require the involvement of toll-like receptor 4-mediated signalling. Taken together, our study suggests that these cationic polymers can effectively and directly re-polarize MDSCs from an immunosuppressive characteristic to an anti-tumour phenotype, leading to successful restoration of immune surveillance in the tumour microenvironment and elimination of tumour cells. Our findings may have immediate impact on further development of polymer-based therapeutics for cancer immunotherapy.
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42
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Talmadge JE. Natural product derived immune-regulatory agents. Int Immunopharmacol 2016; 37:5-15. [PMID: 26968760 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2016.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
We can now declare that the clinical goal of immune intervention as a therapeutic strategy for neoplastic, infectious, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, has been achieved and in many instances obtained regulatory approval. Although, interest in and optimism for this approach has fluctuated, in the last 20years, immunotherapy has progressed from trials with crude microbial mixtures and extracts to the sophisticated use of pure cultured bacterial, synthetized active moieties identified from crude extracts, analogues therefrom and agonists and antagonists identified during screening resulting in reproducible pharmacologically active compounds with multiple mechanisms of action. Our current understanding of the mechanism of action for immunoregulatory agents contributes to the future discovery of improved strategies to use these and future immunotherapies. In this review we have identified and discussed, those drugs that have been approved and or are in clinical development as immunoregulatory agents, emphasizing those derived from or associated with natural product.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Talmadge
- University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986495 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-6495, United States
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43
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Kolahian S, Öz HH, Zhou B, Griessinger CM, Rieber N, Hartl D. The emerging role of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in lung diseases. Eur Respir J 2016; 47:967-77. [PMID: 26846830 DOI: 10.1183/13993003.01572-2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are innate immune cells characterised by their potential to control T-cell responses and to dampen inflammation. While the role of MDSCs in cancer has been studied in depth, our understanding of their relevance for infectious and inflammatory disease conditions has just begun to evolve. Recent studies highlight an emerging and complex role for MDSCs in pulmonary diseases. In this review, we discuss the potential contribution of MDSCs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in lung diseases, particularly lung cancer, tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma and cystic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Kolahian
- Children's Hospital of the University of Tübingen, Pediatric Infectiology, Immunology & Cystic Fibrosis, Tübingen, Germany Dept of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hasan Halit Öz
- Children's Hospital of the University of Tübingen, Pediatric Infectiology, Immunology & Cystic Fibrosis, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Benyuan Zhou
- Children's Hospital of the University of Tübingen, Pediatric Infectiology, Immunology & Cystic Fibrosis, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christoph M Griessinger
- Werner Siemens Imaging Center, Dept of Preclinical Imaging and Radiopharmacy, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nikolaus Rieber
- Children's Hospital of the University of Tübingen, Pediatric Infectiology, Immunology & Cystic Fibrosis, Tübingen, Germany Dept of Pediatrics, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich Germany
| | - Dominik Hartl
- Children's Hospital of the University of Tübingen, Pediatric Infectiology, Immunology & Cystic Fibrosis, Tübingen, Germany
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44
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Beavis PA, Slaney CY, Kershaw MH, Gyorki D, Neeson PJ, Darcy PK. Reprogramming the tumor microenvironment to enhance adoptive cellular therapy. Semin Immunol 2016; 28:64-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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45
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Wu T, Dai Y. Tumor microenvironment and therapeutic response. Cancer Lett 2016; 387:61-68. [PMID: 26845449 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2016.01.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1096] [Impact Index Per Article: 137.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Revised: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment significantly influences therapeutic response and clinical outcome. Microenvironment-mediated drug resistance can be induced by soluble factors secreted by tumor or stromal cells. The adhesion of tumor cells to stromal fibroblasts or to components of the extracellular matrix can also blunt therapeutic response. Microenvironment-targeted therapy strategies include inhibition of the extracellular ligand-receptor interactions and downstream pathways. Immune cells can both improve and obstruct therapeutic efficacy and may vary in their activation status within the tumor microenvironment; thus, re-programme of the immune response would be substantially more beneficial. The development of rational drug combinations that can simultaneously target tumor cells and the microenvironment may represent a solution to overcome therapeutic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing 100034, China
| | - Yun Dai
- Department of Gastroenterology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing 100034, China.
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46
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Combinatorial prospects of nano-targeted chemoimmunotherapy. Biomaterials 2016; 83:308-20. [PMID: 26796043 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Despite the significant increase in our knowledge on cancer initiation and progression, and the development of novel cancer treatments, overall patient survival rates have thus far only marginally improved. However, it can be expected that lasting tumor control will be attainable for an increasing number of cancer patients in the foreseeable future, which is likely to be achieved by combining cancer chemotherapy with anticancer immunotherapy. A plethora of new cancer chemotherapy reagents are expected to become accessible to the clinic in the coming years which can then be used for efficient tumor debulking and aid in antigen exposure to the immune system. Durable remission and the eradication of micrometastases are likely to be achieved with specialized monoclonal antibodies and therapeutic cancer vaccines that modulate the immune system to overcome immunosuppression and kill distant cancer cells. Moreover, the method of drug delivery to tumors, stromal and immune cells is expected to shift largely from conventional 'free' drug molecules to encapsulated in targeted nano-vehicles, therapeutics often referred to or considered part of "nanomedicine". Several biocompatible nano-vehicles, such as metal-nanoparticles, biodegradable-nanoparticles, liposomes or dendrimers are potential candidates for targeted drug delivery but may also serve additional purposes. A dexterous combination of nanomedicine, cancer immunotherapy and chemotherapeutic engineering are likely to become the basis for new hope in the form of targeted cancer therapies that could attack tumors early in their development. One can envision nano-vehicles that would selectively deliver effective doses of chemotherapeutic agents to cancer cells while leaving healthy cells untouched. Furthermore, given that after chemotherapeutic treatment there often remains a limited number of chemo-resistant tumor cells, which go on to drive tumor progression, nano-vehicles could also be engineered to provoke an appropriate immune response to destroy these cells. Here, we discuss the potential of the combinatorial role of cancer chemotherapy, cancer immunotherapy and the prospective of nanotechnology for the targeted delivery of chemoimmunotherapeutic agents.
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47
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Lievense L, Aerts J, Hegmans J. Immune Therapy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 893:59-90. [PMID: 26667339 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-24223-1_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer has long been considered an unsuitable target for immunotherapy due to its proposed immunoresistant properties. However, recent evidence has shown that anti-tumor immune responses can occur in lung cancer patients, paving the way for lung cancer as a novel target for immunotherapy. In order to take full advantage of the potential of immunotherapy, research is focusing on the presence and function of various immunological cell types in the tumor microenvironment. Immune cells which facilitate or inhibit antitumor responses have been identified and their prognostic value in lung cancer has been established. Knowledge regarding these pro- and anti-tumor immune cells and their mechanisms of action has facilitated the identification of numerous potential immunotherapeutic strategies and opportunities for intervention. A plethora of immunotherapeutic approaches is currently being developed and studied in lung cancer patients and phase 3 clinical trials are ongoing. Many different immunotherapies have shown promising clinical effects in patients with limited and advanced stage lung cancer, however, future years will have to tell whether immunotherapy will earn its place in the standard treatment of lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lysanne Lievense
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, Rotterdam, 3015 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Joachim Aerts
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, Rotterdam, 3015 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Joost Hegmans
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Dr. Molewaterplein 50, Rotterdam, 3015 GD, The Netherlands.
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48
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The immunobiology of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in cancer. Tumour Biol 2015; 37:1387-406. [PMID: 26611648 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-015-4477-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is a complex and heterogeneous milieu in which multiple interactions occur between tumor and host cells. Immunosuppressive cells which are present in this microenvironment, such as regulatory T (Treg) cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), play an important role in tumor progression, via down-regulation of antitumor responses. MDSCs represent a heterogeneous group of cells originated from the myeloid lineage that are in the immature state. These cells markedly accumulate under pathologic conditions, such as cancer, infection, and inflammation, and use various mechanisms to inhibit both adaptive and innate immune responses. These immunosuppressive mechanisms include deprivation of T cells from essential amino acids, induction of oxidative stress, interference with viability and trafficking of T cells, induction of immunosuppressive cells, and finally polarizing immunity toward a tumor-promoting type 2 phenotype. In addition to suppression of antitumor immune responses, MDSCs can also enhance the tumor metastasis and angiogenesis. Previous studies have shown that increased frequency of MDSCs is related to the tumor progression. Moreover, various drugs that directly target these cells or reverse their suppressive activity can improve antitumor immune responses as well as increase the efficacy of immunotherapeutic intervention. In this review, we will first discuss on the immunobiology of MDSCs in an attempt to find the role of these cells in tumor progression and then discuss about therapeutic approaches to target these cells.
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49
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Shao B, Wei X, Luo M, Yu J, Tong A, Ma X, Ye T, Deng H, Sang Y, Liang X, Ma Y, Wu Q, Du W, Du J, Gao X, Wen Y, Fu P, Shi H, Luo S, Wei Y. Inhibition of A20 expression in tumor microenvironment exerts anti-tumor effect through inducing myeloid-derived suppressor cells apoptosis. Sci Rep 2015; 5:16437. [PMID: 26561336 PMCID: PMC4642332 DOI: 10.1038/srep16437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are known to play important roles in the development of immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. A20 is a zinc-finger protein which could negatively regulate apoptosis in several cell types. However, the role of A20 in tumor microenvironment remains largely unknown. In this study, we found that A20 was over-expressed in MDSCs. The treatment of tumor-bearing mice with small interfering RNA targeting A20 (si-A20) inhibited the growth of tumors. The infiltration of MDSCs was dramatically reduced after si-A20 treatment, as compared to control groups, whereas the numbers of dendritic cells and macrophages were not affected. Also, injection of si-A20 improved T cell mediated tumor-specific immune response. Depletion of MDSCs with anti-Gr1 antibody showed similar antitumor effect and improved T cell response. TNF-α was highly expressed after si-A20 injection. Furthermore, si-A20 induced apoptosis of MDSCs in the presence of TNF-α both in vivo and in vitro. Cleaved Caspase-3 and Caspase-8 were elevated with the activation of JNK pathway after the induction of MDSC apoptosis by si-A20. Thus, our findings suggested that knockdown of A20 in tumor site inhibited tumor growth at least through inducing the apoptosis of MDSCs. A20 might be a potential target in anticancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Shao
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xiawei Wei
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Min Luo
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jiayun Yu
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Aiping Tong
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xuelei Ma
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Tinghong Ye
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Hongxin Deng
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yaxiong Sang
- College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xiao Liang
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yu Ma
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Qinjie Wu
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Wei Du
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jing Du
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yi Wen
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Ping Fu
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Huashan Shi
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Shuntao Luo
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yuquan Wei
- Division of Nephrology of Department of Internal Medicine and Lab of Aging Research, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy &Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China.,College of life science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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50
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Elevated endoplasmic reticulum stress reinforced immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment via myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Oncotarget 2015; 5:12331-45. [PMID: 25514597 PMCID: PMC4322987 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/11/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in cancer has been studied in detail, and ER stress is known to increase tumor cell apoptosis, and thus, reduce tumor growth. However, in our study, persistent ER stress induced by multiple administrations of low-dose thapsigargin (Tg) accelerated tumor growth in mice. Tg-mediated ER stress increased the generation of Ly6G+CD11b+ myeloid cells, but did not alter anti-tumor effector T cells. 4-Phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA), a chemical chaperone widely used as an ER stress reducer, attenuated Tg-induced myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) expansion and tumor growth. Tg-mediated ER stress enhanced the immunosuppressive capacity of tumor-infiltrating MDSCs by increasing expression of ARG1, iNOS, and NOX2, although splenic MDSCs were not affected. Consistent with these results, 4-PBA restored the anti-tumor immune response by regulating inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and CXCL1/KC, and activated tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells that were inhibited by Tg-mediated ER stress. These results suggest that significant ER stress in a tumor-bearing host might induce tumor growth mediated by enhancement of MDSC-mediated suppression. Therefore, ER stress reducers such as 4-PBA could restore anti-tumor immunity by inhibiting suppressive MDSCs that are exacerbated by ER stress.
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