Human papillomavirus infections and vulvar disease development

Real-World Effectiveness of Human Papillomavirus Vaccination Against Vulvovaginal High-Grade Precancerous Lesions and Cancers

BACKGROUND

Vaccination against human papillomavirus (HPV) has proven to be effective against severe cervical lesions and genital warts, whereas no previous study has provided real-world data on the HPV vaccine effectiveness against high-grade vulvovaginal lesions.

METHODS

A cohort of all women age 17-26 years living in Denmark during 2006-2019 was followed in nationwide registers for individual-level information about HPV vaccination and first diagnoses of vulvar and vaginal high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL+) or worse. The cumulative incidence of vulvar and vaginal HSIL+, respectively, was estimated with the Aalen-Johansen estimator, and Cox proportional hazards regression was used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) for vulvar and vaginal lesions separately, comparing women vaccinated at age 16 years or younger and at age 17-26 years with unvaccinated women.

RESULTS

The cohort consisted of 514 537 women, of which 50.6% were vaccinated at baseline (<16 years), 31.8% were vaccinated during follow-up (17-26 years), and 17.6% remained unvaccinated. The cumulative incidence was less than 0.6‰ for vulvar HSIL+ and less than 0.2‰ for vaginal HSIL+. Adjusted analyses showed reduced HRs for both vulvar (HR = 0.22, 95% confidence interval = 0.13 to 0.38) and vaginal HSIL+ (HR = 0.16, 95% confidence interval = 0.04 to 0.55) for women vaccinated at age 16 years or younger compared with unvaccinated women. For women vaccinated at 17-26 years of age, the reductions in HRs were smaller for vaginal HSIL+ and close to 0 for vulvar HSIL+.

CONCLUSIONS

HPV vaccination before 17 years of age reduces the risk of vulvar and vaginal HSIL+ based on real-world data.

p16 Expression and Biological Behavior of Flat Vulvar Low-grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions (LSIL)

Flat low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) of the vulva [vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) 1, flat condyloma] is an uncommon entity with poorly understood biological behavior. We aimed to determine the risk of subsequent vulvar high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) or carcinoma following a diagnosis of vulvar LSIL/VIN 1, as well as the frequency and predictive value of p16 immunohistochemical expression in this setting. Of the 51 included cases, p16 positivity (diffuse block staining) was identified in 2 (4%). Follow-up data were available in 34 cases, of which 2 (5.9%) developed subsequent vulvar HSIL, including 1/2 p16-positive cases and 1/32 p16-negative cases. The difference in HSIL frequency between p16-positive and p16-negative cases was not statistically significant (P=0.116 for VIN 2+, P=0.061 for VIN 3). For the 18 patients with treatment information available, 10 (56%) received medical or surgical treatment after biopsy. Our results indicate that flat vulvar LSIL is infrequently p16 positive, and that few patients with vulvar LSIL develop subsequent vulvar HSIL. Despite the use of destructive treatment in some cases, the data provide support for the nonpreneoplastic nature of the entity. Immunohistochemical expression of p16 may not be a predictor of HSIL risk in vulvar LSIL, although this result may also be related to the very low rates of both p16 positivity and subsequent vulvar HSIL in our sample. It is clear that vulvar LSIL is distinct from LSIL in other lower anogenital sites in terms of its behavior and p16 expression frequency.

Role of Human Papillomavirus in Vulvar Cancer

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is involved in one of the at least 2 pathways leading to vulvar squamous cell carcinoma (VSCC). Inactivation of p53 and retinoblastoma by the viral products E6 and E7 is involved in malignant transformation. The percentage of HPV-positive VSCCs ranges from 18% to 75%, depending on the geographical area. HPV-associated tumors affect relatively young women and arise from high-grade intraepithelial lesions, identical to other HPV-associated premalignant lesions of the anogenital tract. HPV-independent tumors tend to affect older women and usually arise in a background of inflammatory skin disorders and a subtle variant of in situ lesion called differentiated vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. HPV-positive tumors tend to be of basaloid or warty types, whereas HPV-independent tumors tend to be of keratinizing type, but there is frequent overlap between histologic types. There is no conclusive evidence yet on the best strategy in terms of determining HPV attribution. HPV DNA detection is generally considered the gold standard although there is some concern about misclassification when using this technique alone. p16 immunostaining has shown to be an excellent surrogate marker of HPV infection. Positive results for both techniques are considered the best evidence for HPV-association. The prognostic role of HPV in VSCC is still contradictory, but increasing evidence suggests that HPV-associated tumors are less aggressive. Currently, there are no differences in treatment between HPV-associated and HPV-independent VSCC, but novel immunological strategies based on anti-HPV antigens are being evaluated in clinical trials.

Vulvar Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VIN) and Condylomata

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection of the lower genital tract is common and its effects are variable. The majority of infections are transient and the related pathology is self-resolving. Condyloma accuminatum is caused predominantly by HPV 6, 11 and can be managed with medical or surgical therapy. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia is a treatable precursor to vulvar cancer with 2 main forms: one related to HPV and the other to chronic vulvar inflammatory conditions. It may be treated medically, surgically, or potentially via the use of therapeutic HPV vaccines. Preventive utilization of a quadrivalent HPV vaccine has the potential to decrease HPV-related lower genital disease burden substantially.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Universal Human Papillomavirus Vaccination Using a Dynamic Bayesian Methodology: The BEST II Study

BACKGROUND

Human papillomavirus (HPV) plays a role in the development of benign and malign neoplasms in both sexes. The Italian recommendations for HPV vaccines consider only females. The BEST II study (Bayesian modelling to assess the Effectiveness of a vaccination Strategy to prevent HPV-related diseases) evaluates 1) the cost-effectiveness of immunization strategies targeting universal vaccination compared with cervical cancer screening and female-only vaccination and 2) the economic impact of immunization on various HPV-induced diseases.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether female-only vaccination or universal vaccination is the most cost-effective intervention against HPV.

METHODS

We present a dynamic Bayesian Markov model to investigate transmission dynamics in cohorts of females and males in a follow-up period of 55 years. We assumed that quadrivalent vaccination (against HPV 16, 18, 6, and 11) is available for 12-year-old individuals. The model accounts for the progression of subjects across HPV-induced health states (cervical, vaginal, vulvar, anal, penile, and head/neck cancer as well as anogenital warts). The sexual mixing is modeled on the basis of age-, sex-, and sexual behavioral-specific matrices to obtain the dynamic force of infection.

RESULTS

In comparison to cervical cancer screening, universal vaccination results in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of €1,500. When universal immunization is compared with female-only vaccination, it is cost-effective with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of €11,600. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis shows a relatively large amount of parameter uncertainty, which interestingly has, however, no substantial impact on the decision-making process. The intervention being assessed seems to be associated with an attractive cost-effectiveness profile.

CONCLUSIONS

Universal HPV vaccination is found to be a cost-effective choice when compared with either cervical cancer screening or female-only vaccination within the Italian context.

Human papillomavirus genotype attribution for HPVs 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52 and 58 in female anogenital lesions

OBJECTIVE

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines can potentially control cervical cancer and help to reduce other HPV-related cancers. We aimed to estimate the relative contribution (RC) of the nine types (HPVs 16/18/31/33/45/52/58/6/11) included in the recently approved 9-valent HPV vaccine in female anogenital cancers and precancerous lesions (cervix, vulva, vagina and anus).

METHODS

Estimations were based on an international study designed and coordinated at the Catalan Institute of Oncology (Barcelona-Spain), including information on 10,575 invasive cervical cancer (ICC), 1709 vulvar, 408 vaginal and 329 female anal cancer cases and 587 Vulvar Intraepitelial Neoplasia grade 2/3 (VIN2/3), 189 Vaginal Intraepitelial Neoplasia grade 2/3 (VaIN2/3) and 29 Anal Intraepitelial Neoplasia grade 2/3 (AIN2/3) lesions. Consecutive histologically confirmed paraffin-embedded cases were obtained from hospital pathology archives from 48 countries worldwide. HPV DNA-detection and typing was performed by SPF10-DEIA-LiPA25 system and RC was expressed as the proportion of type-specific cases among HPV positive samples. Multiple infections were added to single infections using a proportional weighting attribution.

RESULTS

HPV DNA prevalence was 84.9%, 28.6%, 74.3% and 90.0% for ICC, vulvar, vaginal and anal cancers, respectively, and 86.7%, 95.8% and 100% for VIN2/3, VaIN2/3 and AIN2/3, respectively. RC of the combined nine HPV types was 89.5% (95% confidence interval (CI): 88.8-90.1)-ICC, 87.1% (83.8-89.9)-vulvar, 85.5% (81.0-89.2)-vaginal, 95.9% (93.0-97.9)-female anal cancer, 94.1% (91.7-96.0)-VIN2/3, 78.7% (71.7-84.2)-VaIN2/3 and 86.2% (68.3-96.1)-AIN2/3. HPV16 was the most frequent type in all lesions. Variations in the RC of HPVs 31/33/45/52/58 by cancer site were observed, ranging from 7.8% (5.0-11.4)-female anal cancer to 20.5% (16.1-25.4)-vaginal cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

The addition of HPVs 31/33/45/52/58 to HPV types included in current vaccines (HPV16/18) could prevent almost 90% of HPV positive female anogenital lesions worldwide. Taking into account that most HPV-related cancers are ICC ones, the 9-valent HPV vaccine could potentially avoid almost 88% of all female anogenital cancers.

Global availability of data on HPV genotype-distribution in cervical, vulvar and vaginal disease and genotype-specific prevalence and incidence of HPV infection in females

Background

Country-level HPV genotyping data may be sought by decision-makers to gauge the genotype-specific burden of HPV-related diseases in their jurisdiction and assess the potential impact of HPV vaccines. We investigated, by country, the availability of published literature on HPV genotypes in cervical, vaginal and vulvar cancers and intraepithelial neoplasms (CINs, VaINs and VINs) and on prevalence and incidence of genital HPV infections among women without clinically manifest disease.

Findings

Primary sources of publications were the PubMed/Medline and EMBASE databases. Original studies or meta-analyses published from 2000, covering genotypes 16 and 18 and at least one of genotypes 31/33/45/52/58, were included. Key exclusion criteria were language not English, cervical lesions not histologically confirmed (cytology only), special populations (e.g., immunocompromised) and, for cervical studies, small population (<50). A total of 727 studies reporting HPV genotype-specific data were identified: 366 for cervical cancers and CINs, 43 for vulvar or vaginal cancers and VINs/VaINs, and 395 and 21 for infection prevalence and incidence, respectively, in general female population samples. A large proportion of studies originated from a small set of countries. Cervical cancer/CIN typing data was scarce for several regions with the highest cervical cancer burden, including Eastern, Middle and Western Africa, Central America, South-East Asia, South Asia, and Eastern Europe. Data for vulvar/vaginal disease was limited outside of Europe and North America.

Conclusions

Although a large body of published HPV genotype-specific data is currently available, data gaps exist for genotype-specific infection incidence and several world regions with the highest cervical cancer burden.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13027-015-0008-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Oncogenic viral prevalence in invasive vulvar cancer specimens from human immunodeficiency virus-positive and -negative women in Botswana

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of select oncogenic viruses within vulvar squamous cell carcinoma (VSCC) and their association with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status in women in Botswana, where the national HIV prevalence is the third highest in the world.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study of biopsy-confirmed VSCC specimens and corresponding clinical data was conducted in Gaborone, Botswana. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) viral testing were done for Epstein-Barr virus, human papillomavirus (HPV) strains, and Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus, and PCR viral testing alone was done for John Cunningham virus.

RESULTS

Human papillomavirus prevalence by PCR was 100% (35/35) among tested samples. Human papillomavirus type 16 was the most prevalent HPV strain (82.9% by PCR, 94.7% by either PCR or IHC). Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus prevalence by PCR had a significant association with HIV status (P = 0.013), but not by IHC (P = 0.650).

CONCLUSIONS

The high burden of HPV, specifically HPV16, in vulvar squamous cell cancer in Botswana suggests a distinct HPV profile that differs from other studied populations, which provides increased motivation for HPV vaccination efforts. Oncogenic viruses Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus and Epstein-Barr virus were also more prevalent in our study population, although their potential role in vulvar squamous cell cancer pathology is unclear.

Reduced prevalence of vulvar HPV16/18 infection among women who received the HPV16/18 bivalent vaccine: a nested analysis within the Costa Rica Vaccine Trial

BACKGROUND

Vaccine efficacy (VE) against vulvar human papillomavirus (HPV) infection has not been reported and data regarding its epidemiology are sparse.

METHODS

Women (n = 5404) age 22-29 present at the 4-year study visit of the Costa Rica Vaccine Trial provided vulvar and cervical samples. A subset (n = 1044) was tested for HPV DNA (SPF10/LiPA25 version 1). VE against 1-time detection of vulvar HPV16/18 among HPV vaccinated versus unvaccinated women was calculated and compared to the cervix. Prevalence of and risk factors for HPV were evaluated in the control arm (n = 536).

RESULTS

Vulvar HPV16/18 VE (54.1%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.9%-79.1%) was comparable to cervix (45.8%; 95% CI, 6.4%-69.4%). Vulvar and cervical HPV16 prevalence within the control arm was 3.0% and 4.7%, respectively. Independent risk factors for vulvar HPV were similar to cervix and included: age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.5 [95% CI, .3-.9] ≥28 vs 22-23]); marital status (aOR 2.3 [95% CI, 1.5-3.5] single vs married/living-as-married); and number of sexual partners (aOR 3.6 [95% CI, 1.9-7.0] ≥6 vs 1).

CONCLUSIONS

In this intention-to-treat analysis, VE against vulvar and cervical HPV16/18 were comparable 4 years following vaccination. Risk factors for HPV were similar by anatomic site.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION

NCT00128661.

Vulvar cancer in the north of Israel

PURPOSE

This is a population study of patients who were treated for vulvar cancer in a tertiary center in northern Israel, aimed to report clinical findings, treatment, and outcome.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of all medical records of consecutive patients who were treated for vulvar cancer in the years 1993-2012 was conducted. Data extracted from the medical records included demographics, histology, size of lesion, stage of disease at diagnosis, type of treatment, radiation dose, follow-up, recurrence, and survival.

RESULTS

The study included 44 patients with a median age of 69.8 years (range, 42-93 years). Thirty-five (79.5%) of the patients were of Jewish descent, five were Arabic, and four were of other descent. The most common histology type was squamous cell carcinoma in 35 (79.5%) patients. Most patients were staged FIGO II-III at time of diagnosis. Surgery was the most common primary treatment modality (54.2%). Twenty-three (52.2%) patients had recurrent disease. Older age and more advanced stage at diagnosis were associated with increased mortality.

CONCLUSION

Vulvar cancer is common among elderly women with co-morbidities who present in advanced disease stage; all these factors are significant for survival.

Targeting human papillomavirus to reduce the burden of cervical, vulvar and vaginal cancer and pre-invasive neoplasia: establishing the baseline for surveillance

BACKGROUND

Infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) is causally related to cervical, vulvar and vaginal pre-invasive neoplasias and cancers. Highly effective vaccines against HPV types 16/18 have been available since 2006, and are currently used in many countries in combination with cervical cancer screening to control the burden of cervical cancer. We estimated the overall and age-specific incidence rate (IR) of cervical, vulvar and vaginal cancer and pre-invasive neoplasia in Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden in 2004-2006, prior to the availability of HPV vaccines, in order to establish a baseline for surveillance. We also estimated the population attributable fraction to determine roughly the expected effect of HPV16/18 vaccination on the incidence of these diseases.

METHODS

Information on incident cervical, vulvar and vaginal cancers and high-grade pre-invasive neoplasias was obtained from high-quality national population-based registries. A literature review was conducted to define the fraction of these lesions attributable to HPV16/18, i.e., those that could be prevented by HPV vaccination.

RESULTS

Among the four countries, the age-standardised IR/10⁵ of cervical, vaginal and vulvar cancer ranged from 8.4-13.8, 1.3-3.1 and 0.2-0.6, respectively. The risk for cervical cancer was highest in women aged 30-39, while vulvar and vaginal cancers were most common in women aged 70+. Age-standardised IR/10⁵ of cervical, vulvar and vaginal pre-invasive neoplasia ranged between 138.8-183.2, 2.5-8.8 and 0.5-1.3, respectively. Women aged 20-29 had the highest risk for cervical pre-invasive neoplasia, while vulvar and vaginal pre-invasive neoplasia peaked in women aged 40-49 and 60-69, respectively. Over 50% of the observed 47,820 incident invasive and pre-invasive cancer cases in 2004-2006 can be attributed to HPV16/18.

CONCLUSION

In the four countries, vaccination against HPV 16/18 could prevent approximately 8500 cases of gynecological cancer and pre-cancer annually. Population-based cancer and vaccination registries are essential to assess the predicted public health effects of HPV vaccination.

Coexisting high-grade vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) and condyloma acuminatum: independent lesions due to different HPV types occurring in immunocompromised patients

The majority of vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) is high-grade and is related to high-risk human papillomavirus (HRHPV) (most commonly HPV 16). It is considered to be the precursor of HRHPV-related vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Vulvar condyloma acuminatum is low-risk HPV (LRHPV)-related (most commonly types 6 and 11) and has virtually no risk of neoplastic progression. While infection with multiple LRHPV and HRHPV types has been reported for cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions, coexisting vulvar condyloma and adjacent high-grade VIN have not been well characterized. Eleven cases of concurrent condyloma acuminatum and adjacent flat high-grade VIN and 3 cases of high-grade VIN with prominent condylomatous architecture were analyzed using immunohistochemical analysis of p16 expression, in situ hybridization (ISH) for HPV detection [HPV 6/11, HPV 16, HPV 18, and HPV wide spectrum (types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 45, 51, 52) probes], and HPV typing by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based method (in select cases). All patients had underlying immunosuppressive conditions (human immunodeficiency virus infection or posttransplant therapy). Among the 11 cases of concurrent high-grade VIN and condyloma, the lesions were directly adjacent to one another in 5 cases (with 2 of these demonstrating an intimate admixture of lesions), and in 6 cases the lesions were found in separate tissue sections from the same specimen. Diffuse/strong p16 expression was seen in all high-grade VIN lesions, whereas patchy/weak staining was found in all condylomata. All condylomata contained HPV 6 or 11 as detected by ISH. HRHPV was detected in all of the accompanying high-grade VIN lesions. Ten contained HPV 16 (9 by ISH, 1 by PCR), with the remaining case containing multiple HPV types by PCR. All condylomatous high-grade VIN lesions demonstrated diffuse/strong p16 expression and had evidence of HRHPV (1 with HPV 16 by ISH, 1 with HPV 18 by ISH, and 1 with multiple HPV types by PCR), with no detection of HPV 6 or 11 by ISH. The restriction of LRHPV to condylomatous components and HRHPV to high-grade VIN components of adjacent lesions suggests these are independent lesions caused by different HPV types. Diffuse p16 expression can highlight small foci of high-grade VIN, which may be overlooked in more abundant condylomatous tissue from immunosuppressed patients. The presence of only HRHPV in those VIN lesions with high-grade cytologic features but prominent condylomatous architecture supports their classification as forms of pure high-grade VIN and distinguishes them from condyloma acuminatum.

Treatment failure in patients with HPV 16-induced vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia: understanding different clinical responses to immunotherapy

Failure of the immune system to launch a strong and effective immune response to high-risk HPV is related to viral persistence and the development of anogenital (pre)malignant lesions such as vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN). Different forms of immunotherapy, aimed at overcoming the inertia of the immune system, have been developed and met with clinical success. Unfortunately these, in principal successful, therapeutic approaches also fail to induce clinical responses in a substantial number of cases. In this review, the authors summarize the traits of the immune response to HPV in healthy individuals and in patients with HPV-induced neoplasia. The potential mechanisms involved in the escape of HPV-induced lesions from the immune system indicate gaps in our knowledge. Finally, the interaction between the immune system and VIN is discussed with a special focus on the different forms of immunotherapy applied to treat VIN and the potential causes of therapy failure. The authors conclude that there are a number of pre-existing conditions that determine the patients' responsiveness to immunotherapy. An immunotherapeutic strategy in which different aspects of immune failure are attacked by complementary approaches, will improve the clinical response rate.

Condyloma-like squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: report of two midline cases

Vulvar cancer is uncommon and may be confused with genital condylomata. We report two cases of middle-aged women presenting with exophytic vulvar tumors of the midline for which diagnosis of a vulvar squamous cell carcinoma was confirmed by histopathology. Risk factors, staging, and treatment options are discussed.

Effect of the human papillomavirus (HPV) quadrivalent vaccine in a subgroup of women with cervical and vulvar disease: retrospective pooled analysis of trial data

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effect of human papillomavirus (HPV) quadrivalent vaccine on the risk of developing subsequent disease after an excisional procedure for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or diagnosis of genital warts, vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia, or vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia.

DESIGN

Retrospective analysis of data from two international, double blind, placebo controlled, randomised efficacy trials of quadrivalent HPV vaccine (protocol 013 (FUTURE I) and protocol 015 (FUTURE II)).

SETTING

Primary care centres and university or hospital associated health centres in 24 countries and territories around the world.

PARTICIPANTS

Among 17,622 women aged 15-26 years who underwent 1:1 randomisation to vaccine or placebo, 2054 received cervical surgery or were diagnosed with genital warts, vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia, or vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia.

INTERVENTION

Three doses of quadrivalent HPV vaccine or placebo at day 1, month 2, and month 6.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Incidence of HPV related disease from 60 days after treatment or diagnosis, expressed as the number of women with an end point per 100 person years at risk.

RESULTS

A total of 587 vaccine and 763 placebo recipients underwent cervical surgery. The incidence of any subsequent HPV related disease was 6.6 and 12.2 in vaccine and placebo recipients respectively (46.2% reduction (95% confidence interval 22.5% to 63.2%) with vaccination). Vaccination was associated with a significant reduction in risk of any subsequent high grade disease of the cervix by 64.9% (20.1% to 86.3%). A total of 229 vaccine recipients and 475 placebo recipients were diagnosed with genital warts, vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia, or vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia, and the incidence of any subsequent HPV related disease was 20.1 and 31.0 in vaccine and placebo recipients respectively (35.2% reduction (13.8% to 51.8%)).

CONCLUSIONS

Previous vaccination with quadrivalent HPV vaccine among women who had surgical treatment for HPV related disease significantly reduced the incidence of subsequent HPV related disease, including high grade disease.

TRIAL REGISTRATIONS

NCT00092521 and NCT00092534.

The re-infection rate of high-risk HPV and the recurrence rate of vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) usual type after surgical treatment

BACKGROUND

VIN usual type appears to be related to the HPV's oncogenic types. The aim of this prospective multicenter study was to evaluate the re-infection rate of high-risk HPV and the recurrence rate of VIN usual type after surgical treatment.

MATERIAL/METHODS

The study enrolled 103 women affected by VIN usual type. They underwent wide local excision by CO2 laser. The patients were investigated by clinical evaluation and HPV DNA test 6 months after surgical treatment, and then were followed-up at 12, 18, 24, and 36 months. The recurrences were treated with re-excision.

RESULTS

The rate of HPV infection after surgical treatment was 34% at 6 months, 36.9% at 12 months, 40% at 18 months, 41.7% at 24 months and 44.7% at 36 months. The mean time from HPV infection to the development of VIN was 18.8 months.

CONCLUSIONS

HPV testing in the follow-up of VIN usual type patients might be useful for identifying those patients with a higher risk of recurrence after surgical treatment, although more studies are needed. These preliminary data suggest that the test, in addition to clinical examination, can improve the efficacy of the follow-up.

Human papillomavirus genotyping and e6/e7 mRNA expression in greek women with intraepithelial neoplasia and squamous cell carcinoma of the vagina and vulva

A large proportion of vaginal and vulvar squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) and intraepithelial neoplasias (VAIN and VIN) are associated with HPV infection, mainly type 16. The purpose of this study was to identify HPV genotypes, as well as E6/E7 mRNA expression of high-risk HPVs (16, 18, 31, 33, and 45) in 56 histology samples of VAIN, VIN, vaginal, and vulvar SCCs. HPV was identified in 56% of VAIN and 50% of vaginal SCCs, 71.4% of VIN and 50% of vulvar SCCs. E6/E7 mRNA expression was found in one-third of VAIN and in all vaginal SCCs, 42.9% of VIN and 83.3% of vulvar SCCs. Our data indicated that HPV 16 was the commonest genotype identified in VAIN and VIN and the only genotype found in SCCs of the vagina and vulva. These findings may suggest, in accordance with other studies, that mRNA assay might be useful in triaging lesions with increased risk of progression to cancer.

Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in Czech women and men with diseases etiologically linked to HPV

BACKGROUND

The HPV prevalence and genotype distribution are important for the estimation of the impact of HPV-based cervical cancer screening and HPV vaccination on the incidence of diseases etiologically linked to HPVs. The HPV genotype distribution varies across different geographical regions. Therefore, we investigated the type-specific HPV prevalence in Czech women and men with anogenital diseases.

METHODS

We analyzed 157 squamous cell carcinoma samples, 695 precancerous lesion samples and 64 cervical, vulvar and anal condylomata acuminate samples. HPV detection and typing were performed by PCR with GP5+/6+ primers, reverse line blot assay and sequencing.

RESULTS

Thirty different HPV genotypes were detected in our study, HPV 16 being the most prevalent type both in precancerous lesions (45%) and squamous cell carcinomas (59%). In benign lesions, HPV 6 (72%) was the most common type. Altogether, 61% of carcinoma samples and 43% of precancerous lesion samples contained HPV 16 and/or 18. The presence of HPV types related to the vaccinal ones (HPV 31, 45, 33, 52, 58) were detected in 16% of carcinoma samples and 18% of precancerous lesion samples. HPV 16 and/or 18 were present in 76% of cervical cancer samples, 33% of CIN1, 43% CIN2 and 71% of CIN3 samples. HPV types 6 and/or 11 were detected in 84% samples of condylomata acuminate samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of vaccinal and related HPV types in patients with HPV-associated diseases in the Czech Republic is very high. We may assume that the implementation of routine vaccination against HPV would greatly reduce the burden of HPV-associated diseases in the Czech Republic.

Two distinct pathways to development of squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) accounts for approximately 95% of the malignant tumors of the vaginal vulva and is mostly found in elderly women. The future numbers of patients with vulvar SCC is expected to rise, mainly because of the proportional increase in the average age of the general population. Two different pathways for vulvar SCC have been put forth. The first pathway is triggered by infection with a high-risk-type Human Papillomavirus (HPV). Integration of the HPV DNA into the host genome leads to the development of a typical vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN), accompanied with overexpression of p14^ARF and p16^INK4A. This lesion subsequently forms a warty- or basaloid-type SCC. The HPV vaccine is a promising new tool for prevention of this HPV related SCC of the vulva. The second pathway is HPV-independent. Keratinizing SCC develops within a background of lichen sclerosus (LS) through a differentiated VIN. It has a different set of genetic alterations than those in the first pathway, including p53 mutations, allelic imbalances (AI), and microsatellite instability (MSI). Further clinical and basic research is still required to understand and prevent vulvar SCC. Capsule. Two pathway for pathogenesis of squamous cell carcinoma of the value are reviewed.