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Ghafouri-Fard S, Abak A, Mohaqiq M, Shoorei H, Taheri M. The Interplay Between Non-coding RNAs and Insulin-Like Growth Factor Signaling in the Pathogenesis of Neoplasia. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:634512. [PMID: 33768092 PMCID: PMC7985092 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.634512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are polypeptides with similar sequences with insulin. These factors regulate cell growth, development, maturation, and aging via different processes including the interplay with MAPK, Akt, and PI3K. IGF signaling participates in the pathogenesis of neoplasia, insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, polycystic ovarian syndrome, cerebral ischemic injury, fatty liver disease, and several other conditions. Recent investigations have demonstrated the interplay between non-coding RNAs and IGF signaling. This interplay has fundamental roles in the development of the mentioned disorders. We designed the current study to search the available data about the role of IGF-associated non-coding RNAs in the evolution of neoplasia and other conditions. As novel therapeutic strategies have been designed for modification of IGF signaling, identification of the impact of non-coding RNAs in this pathway is necessary for the prediction of response to these modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soudeh Ghafouri-Fard
- Department of Medical Genetics, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atefe Abak
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mahdi Mohaqiq
- School of Advancement, Centennial College, Ashtonbee Campus, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Hamed Shoorei
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Biranjd University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran
| | - Mohammad Taheri
- Urology and Nephrology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Yi T, Wang T, Shi Y, Peng X, Tang S, Zhong L, Chen Y, Li Y, He K, Wang M, Zhao H, Li Q. Long noncoding RNA 91H overexpression contributes to the growth and metastasis of HCC by epigenetically positively regulating IGF2 expression. Liver Int 2020; 40:456-467. [PMID: 31724285 DOI: 10.1111/liv.14300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Long noncoding RNA 91H is transcribed from the H19/IGF2 locus and contributes to the development of breast and oesophagus cancers by regulating the expression of IGF2, but the regulation mechanism remains poorly characterized. Here, we explored the role of 91H in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and the mechanism of IGF2 expression regulation by 91H. METHODS Firstly, the expression of 91H was analysed in HCC by quantitative RT-PCR, the association of 91H with survival was evaluated by the Kaplan-Meier method and the effect of 91H on the growth and invasion of HCC was investigated by the in vitro and in vivo studies. Then, the association of 91H with the expression of IGF2 was evaluated in HCC tissues, and the effect of 91H on the expression of IGF2 was investigated by 91H knockdown. Finally, the binding of RBBP5 to 91H and the binding of RBBP5, activating H3K4me3 mark and repressive H3K27me3 mark to the P3 and P4 promoters of IGF2 gene were studied by RIP and ChIP respectively. RESULTS The overexpression of 91H was found in HCC and in association with the growth, metastasis and shorter survival time of HCC. The knockdown of 91H down-regulated the IGF2 expression in HCC, and the mechanism was correlated with the decreased enrichment of RBBP5 and H3K4me3 and increased enrichment of H3K27me3 at the bivalent P3 and P4 promoters. CONCLUSIONS The overexpression of 91H promotes tumour growth and metastasis, and is associated with a poor prognosis of HCC at least partially by positively regulating the expression of IGF2 through bivalent histone modification changes characterized by H3K4me3 and H3K27me3 at the P3 and P4 promoters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingzhuang Yi
- Internal Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China.,Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, BaiSe, P. R. China
| | - Tonghua Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, BaiSe, P. R. China.,Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Ying Shi
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Xiaojuan Peng
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital (Clinical College) of Xiangnan University, Chenzhou, P. R. China
| | - Shaohui Tang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Lu Zhong
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yanfang Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Yuting Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Kaiyin He
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Hailiang Zhao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Affiliated Hospital of Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities, BaiSe, P. R. China.,Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Qing Li
- Department of Interventional vascular surgery, Affiliated Hospital (Clinical College) of Xiangnan University, Chenzhou, P. R. China
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Tai BJ, Yao M, Zheng WJ, Shen YC, Wang L, Sun JY, Wu MN, Dong ZZ, Yao DF. Alteration of oncogenic IGF-II gene methylation status associates with hepatocyte malignant transformation. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 2019; 18:158-163. [PMID: 30692043 DOI: 10.1016/j.hbpd.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oncogenic insulin-like growth factor-II (IGF-II) is overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The present study aimed to analyze the dynamic alteration of IGF-II CpG site methylation status and its molecular mechanism in HCC progression. METHODS IGF-II alterations were observed in rat hepatocarcinogenesis models induced by 2-acetylaminofluorene. Liver IGF-II expression was compared by immunohistochemistry or tissue IGF-II specific concentration (nmol/mg protein). Status of human IGF-II promoter 3 (P3) or rat IGF-II P2 CpG site methylation was amplified by methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (MSP). Serum IGF-II levels were quantitatively detected by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS The levels of hepatic IGF-II expression were significantly elevated in the HCC group (P < 0.001). The unmethylation rate of IGF-II P3 CpG sites was 100% in the HCC-, 52.5% in the paracancerous-, and none (0%) in the distal noncancerous-tissues. Abnormal IGF-II expression was related to differentiation degree, tumor invasion, and positive HBV-DNA (all P < 0.001), with a negative correlation between P3 methylation degree and IGF-II expression. There was a positive correlation between liver IGF-II specific concentration and circulating IGF-II level (r = 0.97, P < 0.001). Significantly negative correlation was found between IGF-II P2 CpG site methylation and circulating IGF-II (rs = -0.89, P < 0.001) or liver IGF-II level (rs = -0.84, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The increase of serum IGF-II and the alteration of oncogenic gene IGF-II methylation may be biomarkers for HCC diagnosis and DNA methylation may be the therapeutic target of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Jun Tai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Min Yao
- Department of Immunology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Wen-Jie Zheng
- Department of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Yu-Cheng Shen
- Department of Oncology, Affiliated Haian Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226601, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Immunology, Medical School of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Jian-Ying Sun
- Department of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Meng-Na Wu
- Department of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Zhi-Zhen Dong
- Department of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Deng-Fu Yao
- Department of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China.
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Zheng QF, Xu B, Wang HM, Ding LH, Liu JY, Zhu LY, Qiu H, Zhang L, Ni GY, Ye J, Gao SB, Jin GH. Epigenetic alterations contribute to promoter activity of imprinting gene IGF2. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2018; 1861:117-124. [PMID: 29413895 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2017.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The expression of insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2), a classical imprinting gene, didn't completely correlate with its imprinting profiles in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The mechanistic importance of promoter activity in regulation of IGF2 has not been fully clarified. Here we show that histone 3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) modified by menin-MLL complex of IGF2 promoter contributes to promoter activity of IGF2. The strong binding of menin and abundant H3K4me3 at the DNA demethylated P3/4 promoters were observed in Hep3B cells with the robust expression of IGF2. In IGF2-low-expressing HepG2 cells, menin didn't bind to DNA hypermethylated P3/4 regions; however, menin overexpression inhibited DNA methylation and promoted H3K4me3 at the P3/4 as well as IGF2 expression in HepG2. In addition, the H3K4me3 at P3/4 locus was activated in primary HCC specimens with high IGF2 expression. Furthermore, inhibition of the menin/MLL interaction via MI-2/3 reduced IGF2 expression, inhibited the IGF1R-AKT pathway, and significantly repressed HCC with robust expression of IGF2. Taken together, we conclude that H3K4me3 of P3/4 locus mediated by the menin-MLL complex is a novel epigenetic mechanism for releasing IGF2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Fan Zheng
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Bin Xu
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China.
| | - Hui-Min Wang
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Li-Hong Ding
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Jin-Yang Liu
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Ling-Yu Zhu
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Huan Qiu
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Guang-Yi Ni
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Jing Ye
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Shu-Bin Gao
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China
| | - Guang-Hui Jin
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, Xiamen University, Chengzhi building 110, Xiang'an South Road, Xiamen 361102, PR China.
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Ji Y, Wang Z, Li Z, Huang N, Chen H, Li B, Hui B. Silencing IGF-II impairs C-myc and N-ras expressions of SMMC-7721 cells via suppressing FAK/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Cytokine 2016; 90:44-53. [PMID: 27768959 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2016.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence confirms that insulin-like growth factor -II (IGF-II), oncogenes C-myc and N-ras are an essential regulator for development and growth in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Although our previous study also indicated that IGF-II might upregulate levels of oncogenes C-myc and N-ras in hepatoma carcinoma cells, the molecular mechanism had not been fully elucidated. Herein, we successfully silenced IGF-II expression in SMCC-7721 cells by small RNA interference. Functional analysis showed that knockdown of IGF-II significantly suppressed growth and proliferation of SMMC-7721 cells and decreased C-myc and N-ras mRNA and protein levels. And this function was mediated by the FAK/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Taken together, IGF-II siRNA inactivates the FAK/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, and further reduces cell proliferation, N-ras and C-myc levels in SMMC-7721 cells. Especially, understanding the relationship between IGF-II and oncogenes N-ras and C-myc in cancer cells will provide novel clues for clinic HCC treatment in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Ji
- Scientific Research Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Zhidong Wang
- Geriatric Digestive Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China.
| | - Zongfang Li
- National Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Biodiagnostics and Biotherapy, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Na Huang
- Scientific Research Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Haiyan Chen
- Scientific Research Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Baohua Li
- Scientific Research Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Bo Hui
- Geriatric Digestive Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
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Loaiza-Bonilla A, Furth EE, Morrissette JJD. Next-generation sequencing and personalized genomic medicine in hepatobiliary malignancies. Hepat Oncol 2015; 2:359-370. [PMID: 30191018 PMCID: PMC6095428 DOI: 10.2217/hep.15.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver cancer is a heterogeneous group of tumors characterized by significant molecular and genomic heterogeneity. The advent of powerful genomic technologies has allowed detection of recurrent somatic alterations in liver cancer, including mutations, copy number alterations as well as changes in transcriptomes and epigenomes, with the potential to translate these data into clinically relevant predictive and prognostic factors. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the application of high-throughput genomic technologies in liver cancer and the integration of such cancer genome profiling data, highlighting specific relevant subgroups and explain how this knowledge can be used in translational clinical research, 'basket trials', molecular tumor boards, targeted therapy and for personalized genomic medicine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Loaiza-Bonilla
- Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman Center for Advanced Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3400 Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Emma E Furth
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jennifer JD Morrissette
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Han JJ, Xue DW, Han QR, Liang XH, Xie L, Li S, Wu HY, Song B. Induction of apoptosis by IGFBP3 overexpression in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 15:10085-9. [PMID: 25556430 DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2014.15.23.10085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system comprises a group of proteins that play key roles in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis in a variety of cellular systems. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 (IGFBP3) in hepatocellular carcinoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS Expression of IGF2, IGFBP3, and PTEN was analyzed by qRT-PCR. Lentivirus vectors were used to overexpress IGFBP3 in hepatocellular carcinoma cell (HCC) lines. The effect of IGFBP3 on proliferation was investigated by MTT and colony formation assays. RESULTS Expression of IGF2, IGFBP3, and PTEN in several HCC cell lines was lower than in normal cell lines. After 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine/trichostatin A treatment, significant demethylation of the promoter region of IGFBP3 was observed in HCC cells. Overexpression of IGFBP3 induced apoptosis and reduced colony formation in HUH7 cells. CONCLUSIONS Expression of IGF2, IGFBP3, and PTEN in several HCC cell lines was lower than in normal cell lines. After 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine/ trichostatin A treatment, significant demethylation of the promoter region of IGFBP3 was observed in HCC cells. Overexpression of IGFBP3 induced apoptosis and reduced colony formation in HUH7 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Jun Han
- Department of Cancer Intervention Treatment Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Jinan, China E-mail :
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Tang S, Hu W, Hu J, Wu S, Li J, Luo Y, Cao M, Zhou H, Jiang X. Hepatitis B virus X protein promotes P3 transcript expression of the insulin-like growth factor 2 gene via inducing hypomethylation of P3 promoter in hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Int 2015; 35:608-19. [PMID: 24423280 DOI: 10.1111/liv.12469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Hepatitis B virus (HBV) X protein (HBx) contributes to hepatocarcinogenesis. The overexpression of transcripts from P3 and P4 promoters of the insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) gene is observed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we aimed to explore the involvement of HBx in P3-driven mRNA overexpression and underlying epigenetic mechanism. METHODS P3 mRNA, P3 methylation status, HBx mRNA and HBx protein were analysed in human HCC samples with and without HBV infection using quantitative RT-PCR, bisulphite sequencing and Western blotting. The effects of HBx on P3 mRNA expression, and P3 transcriptional activity and methylation were further evaluated in HCC cell lines. RESULTS P3 mRNA level was higher and P3 methylation level was lower in HBV-positive HCC specimens compared with those of HBV-negative HCC specimens. P3 transcript abundance was positively correlated with HBx expression and negatively correlated with P3 methylation in HCC specimens. The stable expression of HBx upregulated P3 mRNA expression and reduced P3 methylation level in HepG2-HBx cells. The transient expression of HBx stimulated P3 promoter activity and decreased P3 methylation level of P3 promoter-luciferase construct in a dose-dependent manner in HepG2 and Huh-7 cells. Furthermore, HBx mRNA expression was found to be independent predictive factors for both shorter disease-free survival time and shorter overall survival time of HCC patients. CONCLUSION HBx may promote IGF2-P3 transcript expression by inducing hypomethylation of P3 promoter and may be associated with an inferior clinical outcome of HBV-related HCC patients. This study provides useful information for understanding the mechanism of HBx-mediated HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohui Tang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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Anestopoulos I, Voulgaridou GP, Georgakilas AG, Franco R, Pappa A, Panayiotidis MI. Epigenetic therapy as a novel approach in hepatocellular carcinoma. Pharmacol Ther 2014; 145:103-19. [PMID: 25205159 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver malignancy and one with high fatality. Its 5-year survival rate remains low and thus, there is a need for improvement of current treatment strategies as well as development of novel targeted methodologies in order to optimize existing therapeutic protocols. To this end, only recently, it was discovered that its pathophysiology also involves epigenetic alterations in DNA methylation, histone modifications and/or non-coding microRNA patterns. Unlike genetic events, epigenetic alterations are reversible and thus potentially considered to be an alternative option in cancer treatment protocols. In this review, we describe the general characteristics and resulted major alterations of the epigenetic machinery as well as current state of progress of epigenetic therapy (via different single or combinatorial experimental approaches) in HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Anestopoulos
- Department of Molecular Biology & Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | | | - Alexandros G Georgakilas
- School of Applied Mathematical & Physical Sciences, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Rodrigo Franco
- Redox Biology Center, School of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
| | - Aglaia Pappa
- Department of Molecular Biology & Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
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Salem TI, Abdullah OA, Abdulhamid AM. Polymorphism of Insulin-Like Growth Factor-II Gene in Primary Open Angle Glaucoma and its Effect on Treatment. INT J PHARMACOL 2014. [DOI: 10.3923/ijp.2014.328.333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Genome-wide and gene-specific epigenomic platforms for hepatocellular carcinoma biomarker development trials. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2014; 2014:597164. [PMID: 24829571 PMCID: PMC4009191 DOI: 10.1155/2014/597164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of the epigenomic reports in hepatocellular carcinoma have focused on identifying novel differentially methylated drivers or passengers of the oncogenic process. Few reports have considered the technologies in place for clinical translation of newly identified biomarkers. The aim of this study was to identify epigenomic technologies that need only a small number of samples to discriminate HCC from non-HCC tissue, a basic requirement for biomarker development trials. To assess that potential, we used quantitative Methylation Specific PCR, oligonucleotide tiling arrays, and Methylation BeadChip assays. Concurrent global DNA hypomethylation, gene-specific hypermethylation, and chromatin alterations were observed as a hallmark of HCC. A global loss of promoter methylation was observed in HCC with the Illumina BeadChip assays and the Nimblegen oligonucleotide arrays. HCC samples had lower median methylation peak scores and a reduced number of significant promoter-wide methylated probes. Promoter hypermethylation of RASSF1A, SSBP2, and B4GALT1 quantified by qMSP had a sensitivity ranging from 38% to 52%, a specificity of 100%, and an AUC from 0.58 to 0.75. A panel combining these genes with HCC risk factors had a sensitivity of 87%, a specificity of 100%, and an AUC of 0.91.
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Zhang M, Drummen GPC, Luo S. Anti-insulin-like growth factor-IIP3 DNAzymes inhibit cell proliferation and induce caspase-dependent apoptosis in human hepatocarcinoma cell lines. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2013; 7:1089-102. [PMID: 24115835 PMCID: PMC3793593 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s48971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background Insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) is a fetal growth protein and an important proangiogenic factor controlled by four promoters (P), of which P2–P4 are inactive in the adult liver. Reactivation and dysregulation of IGF-IIP3 in particular is associated with the attenuation of apoptosis and increased proliferation in a number of liver cancer cell types. Its involvement in experimental liver carcinogenesis makes it a potential target for cancer gene therapy. We designed two IGF-IIP3 specific DNAzymes (DRz1 and DRz2) that target IGF-IIP3 messenger RNA (mRNA) with the aim of reducing IGF-II expression through promoter 3. Methods IGF-IIP3 mRNA and protein expression levels were assessed using real-time polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis/western blotting after transfection with Lipofectamine® in SMMC-7721, Huh7, and HepG2 cell lines. Cell proliferation was determined via MTT assay; apoptosis was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and with flow cytometry; procaspase-3 and -9 expression were detected via western blotting; and caspase activity was assayed colorimetrically. Standard procedures were used to calculate means and standard deviations, and P-values below 0.05 were considered to indicate significant differences. Results DRzs were transfected into hepatocellular carcinoma cells and the results showed that DRz1, in particular, could decrease the expression of IGF-IIP3 by nearly 50%. Furthermore, DRz1 significantly inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis. In addition, the down-regulation of IGF-IIP3 expression was associated with increased caspase-3 and -9 activity in SMMC-7721 cells after 24 hours of transfection. In all experiments, the efficacy of DRz2 to influence IGF-IIP3 levels and associated effects remained second to DRz1. Conclusion Overall, these results suggest that DRz1-based targeting of IGF-IIP3 mRNA might have antitumorigenic activity and may potentially provide the basis for a novel therapeutic intervention in liver cancer treatment, although further development is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- Medical Department, Beihua University, Jilin, People's Republic of China
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Cho EJ, Lee JH, Yoo JJ, Choi WM, Lee MJ, Cho Y, Lee DH, Lee YB, Kwon JH, Yu SJ, Lee JM, Suh KS, Kim K, Kim YJ, Yoon JH, Kim CY, Lee HS. Serum insulin-like growth factor-I level is an independent predictor of recurrence and survival in early hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective cohort study. Clin Cancer Res 2013; 19:4218-27. [PMID: 23757355 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-12-3443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) reflects hepatic synthetic function and plays an important role in the development and progression of various cancers. In this study, we investigated whether pretreatment serum IGF-I levels predict time-to-recurrence (TTR) and overall survival (OS) in patients with early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma after curative treatment. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Consecutive patients with hepatocellular carcinoma who had undergone surgical resection, radiofrequency ablation, or percutaneous ethanol injection as curative treatments of early hepatocellular carcinoma were included from two prospective cohorts and the training set (n = 101) and the validation set (n = 91) were established. Serum samples were collected before treatment and the levels of IGF-I and IGF-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) were analyzed with regard to their associations with recurrence and survival. RESULTS In the training set, patients with low IGF-I levels showed significantly shorter TTR [median, 14.6 months; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.8-27.5] than patients with high IGF-I levels (median, 50.8 months; 95% CI, 36.9-64.7; P < 0.001) during a median follow-up period of 52.4 months. In the multivariate analysis, low levels of IGF-I were an independent predictor of recurrence (HR, 2.49; 95% CI, 1.52-4.08; P < 0.001). Furthermore, together with high-serum α-fetoprotein and multiple tumors, low levels of IGF-I remained an independent predictor of poorer survival (HR, 8.00; 95% CI, 1.94-33.01; P = 0.004). Applied to the independent validation set, low-serum IGF-I levels maintained their prognostic value for shorter TTR and OS. CONCLUSIONS Low-baseline IGF-I levels independently correlated with shorter TTR and poorer survival in patients with early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma after curative treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Ju Cho
- Department of Internal Medicine, Liver Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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14
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Liu YX, Zhang SF, Ji YH, Guo SJ, Wang GF, Zhang GW. Whole-exome sequencing identifies mutated PCK2 and HUWE1 associated with carcinoma cell proliferation in a hepatocellular carcinoma patient. Oncol Lett 2012. [PMID: 23205112 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2012.825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is diagnosed in more than half a million individuals worldwide every year. It is often invasive and metastatic, resulting in a poor prognosis. Our knowledge of the genomic alterations implicated in HCC initiation and progression is fragmentary, and few molecular alterations unique to HCC are known. We performed whole-exome sequencing for a pleomorphic cell-type HCC tissue and matched normal tissue, and uncovered seven non-synonymous somatic variants in SPATA21, PPCS, CDH12, OR1L3, PCK2, HUWE1 and PHF16. These variants were validated by PCR and sequencing, with the exception of that in PPCS. We further performed a bioinformatics analysis of the six validated variants. The results suggested that the function of the proteins of the three mutated genes, PCK2, HUWE1 and PHF16, may be changed significantly. Among these genes, PCK2, within the insulin signaling pathway, and HUWE1, within the ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis pathway, may be essential for cell proliferation. These pathways are known to be important for hepatocarcinogenesis. Hence, we suggest that PCK2 and HUWE1 are associated with carcinoma cell proliferation in HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Xuan Liu
- Department of Genetic Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Weihui 453100
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15
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Marquardt JU, Galle PR, Teufel A. Molecular diagnosis and therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC): an emerging field for advanced technologies. J Hepatol 2012; 56:267-75. [PMID: 21782758 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2011.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Despite great progress in diagnosis and management of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the exact biology of the tumor remains poorly understood overall limiting the patients' outcome. Detailed analysis and characterization of the molecular mechanisms and subsequently individual prediction of corresponding prognostic traits would revolutionize both diagnosis and treatment of HCC and is the key goal of modern personalized medicine. Over the recent years systematic approaches for the analysis of whole tumor genomes and transcriptomes as well as epigenomes became affordable tools in translational research. This includes simultaneous analyses of thousands of molecular targets using microarray-based technologies as well as next-generation sequencing. Although currently diagnosis and classification of hepatocellular cancers still rely on histological examination of tumor sections, these technologies show great promise to advance the current knowledge of hepatocarcinogenesis, complement diagnostic classification in a setting of microarray-aided pathology, and rationalize the individual drug selection. This review aims to summarize recent progress of system biological approaches in hepatocarcinogenesis and outline potential areas for translational application in a clinical setting. Further, we give an update about known signaling pathways active in HCC, summarize the historical application of whole genomic approaches in liver cancer and indicate ongoing experimental research utilizing novel technologies in diagnosis and treatment of this deadly disease. This will also include the discussion and characterization of new molecular and cellular targets such as Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens U Marquardt
- Department of Medicine I, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
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Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the sixth most common cancer, and its mortality rate is the third highest after lung and colon cancer. Its incidence has significantly increased in the last two decades in close relation with the ubiquitous spread of viral hepatitis. HCC has a poor prognosis since less than 30% of newly diagnosed patients will be eligible for potential curative treatment. Molecular therapies such as sorafenib, a BRAF/ VEGFR/PDGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor, have shown to improve survival in patients with advanced HCC. This recent success has spurred intensive research aimed at identifying aberrant activation of signaling pathways. This approach will probably aid to define previously unrecognized oncogenic addiction loops in HCC and in developing more effective targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Sia
- HCC Translational Research Laboratory, Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer Group, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, Spain
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17
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Raef H, Zou M, Baitei EY, Al-Rijjal RA, Kaya N, Al-Hamed M, Monies D, Abu-Dheim NN, Al-Hindi H, Al-Ghamdi MH, Meyer BF, Shi Y. A novel deletion of the MEN1 gene in a large family of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) with aggressive phenotype. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2011; 75:791-800. [PMID: 21627674 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.04134.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT The MEN1 syndrome is associated with parathyroid, pancreatic and pituitary tumours and is caused by mutations in the MEN1 gene. In general, there is no genotype-phenotype correlation. OBJECTIVES To characterize a large family with MEN1 with aggressive tumour behaviour: malignant pancreatic endocrine tumours were present in five affected subjects and were the presenting features in three subjects. DESIGN The coding region of MEN1 was sequenced. Gene copy number analysis was performed by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) and array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH). Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in tumour tissue was studied by microsatellite analysis. Insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) and CDKN1C/p57KIP2 expression were investigated by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Mutation screening by conventional PCR sequence analysis of patients' peripheral blood DNA did not reveal any mutation in the MEN1 or CDKN1B gene. Gene copy number analysis by MLPA and aCGH demonstrated a novel monoallelic deletion of 5 kb genomic DNA involving the MEN1 promoter and exons 1 and 2. LOH analysis indicated somatic deletion of maternal chromosome 11, including MEN1 locus (11q13) and 11p15 imprinting control regions (ICR). Methylation analysis of ICR demonstrated ICR1 hypermethylation and ICR2 hypomethylation in the tumour specimens. ICR1 and ICR2 control the expression of IGF-2 and CDKN1C/p57KIP2, respectively. Immunohistochemistry showed that expression of paternally expressed IGF-2 was up-regulated and the maternally expressed CDKN1C/p57KIP2 was lost in the pancreatic endocrine tumours. CONCLUSIONS Gene copy number analysis by MLPA should be considered in patients with negative conventional mutation screening. Although large MEN1 deletion causes MEN1, disruption of imprinted CDKN1C/p57KIP2 and IGF-2 gene expression may contribute to tumour progression and aggressive phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussein Raef
- Department of Medicine, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Qiu J, Huang P, Liu Q, Hong J, Li B, Lu C, Wang L, Wang J, Yuan Y. Identification of MACC1 as a novel prognostic marker in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Transl Med 2011; 9:166. [PMID: 21955323 PMCID: PMC3192685 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-9-166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Metastasis-associated in colon cancer-1 (MACC1) is a newly identified gene that plays a role in colon cancer metastasis through upregulation of c-MET proto-oncogene (c-MET). However, the value of MACC1 as a potential biomarker for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unknown. Methods MACC1 mRNA expression in 128 HCC tissues was examined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. To show the potential correlation of MACC1 and c-MET, c-MET was also analysed. Results MACC1 was more highly expressed in HCC than in non-HCC tissues (P = 0.009). High MACC1 expression was significantly increased in cases with high alpha fetoprotein (AFP) (P = 0.025). A positive correlation was found between MACC1 and c-MET mRNAs (r = 0.235, P = 0.009). Both univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that MACC1 expression was associated with overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS). Moreover, stratified analysis showed that tumour-node-metastasis (TNM) stage I patients with high MACC1 levels had shorter OS and DFS than those with low MACC1. Conclusions MACC1 may identify low- and high-risk individuals with HCC and be a valuable indicator for stratifying the prognosis of TNM stage I patients. MACC1 may serve as a novel biomarker for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiliang Qiu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Oncology, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
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Altered microRNA Expression Patterns in Hepatoblastoma Patients. Transl Oncol 2011; 2:157-63. [PMID: 19701500 DOI: 10.1593/tlo.09124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2009] [Revised: 03/16/2009] [Accepted: 03/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver cancers in children are rare representing only 1.1% of malignancies, with an annual incidence rate of 1.5 cases per million. Hepatoblastoma and hepatocellular carcinomas are the most common malignancies of the liver occurring in young people aged 15 years or younger. Molecular basis of both tumors are still unclear, and common markers (i.e., CTNNB1, APC, IGF-2) are not always useful in the characterization of sporadic forms; in this respect, microRNA recently associated with carcinogenesis could play a pivotal role in their onset. CTNNB1 and APC were analyzed by sequencing, and IGF-2 promoter methylation status was assessed by methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction. MicroRNA expression was assayed by microarray and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in hepatoblastoma samples. Although few genomic alterations were detected in ours samples, an altered expression of somemicroRNA in hepatoblastoma was observed. Unsupervised clustering shows that microRNA profile can distinguish tumor from nontumor tissues. Further analyses of microRNA contents in hepatoblastoma compared with hepatocellular carcinoma highlighted four upregulated microRNA (miR-214, miR-199a, miR-150 [P < .01], and miR-125a [P < .05]) and one downregulated microRNA (miR-148a [P < .01]). In conclusion, although our samples were poorly informative from a genetic point of view, they showed a peculiar microRNA expression pattern compared with nontumor tissues and hepatocellular carcinoma. MicroRNA could represent valid markers for the classification of pediatric liver tumors.
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Yao NH, Yao DF, Qian J, Dong ZZ, Qiu LW, Yu DD. Construction of expression plasmids carrying miRNA targeting IGF-II and detection of their inhibitory effect on IGF-II expression in human HepG2 cells. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2011; 19:1015-1021. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v19.i10.1015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate inhibitory effect of transfection of eukaryotic expression plasmids carrying specific microRNA (miRNA) on insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) gene and protein expression in human HepG2 cells.
METHODS: Four miRNAs targeting the IGF-II gene were synthesized and inserted into the pcDNATM6.2-GW/EmGFPmiR vector. The recombinant plasmids were identified and transiently transfected into HepG2 cells. Their inhibitory efficiency on IGF-II expression was determined at gene level by real time-PCR and at protein level by ELISA.
RESULTS: Four eukaryotic expression plasmids carrying miRNA targeting IGF-II were constructed successfully and confirmed by sequencing. HepG2 cells were then transfected with these plasmids (MR-IGF-II-1 to 4). The highest transfection efficiency was up to 50%. The reduced rates of IGF-II gene expression were 33%, 43%, 0% and 3% in cells transfected with MR-IGF-II-1 to 4, respectively. Transfection of the MR-IGF-II-2 plasmid for 72 h reduced IGF-II protein expression by 44% in HepG2 cells.
CONCLUSION: The expression plasmids carrying miRNA targeting IGF-II have been successfully constructed. Transfection of these plamsids can efficiently inhibit IGF-II expression in HepG2 cells.
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Qian J, Yao D, Dong Z, Wu W, Qiu L, Yao N, Li S, Bian Y, Wang Z, Shi G. Characteristics of hepatic igf-ii expression and monitored levels of circulating igf-ii mRNA in metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma. Am J Clin Pathol 2010; 134:799-806. [PMID: 20959664 DOI: 10.1309/ajcptfdse2v3lczp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains dismal. Insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II), a fetal growth factor, is highly expressed during HCC development. We examined serum IGF-II levels and circulating IGF-II messenger RNA (mRNA) expression and analyzed the clinicopathologic characteristics in patients with liver diseases. The higher IGF-II level in the serum of patients with HCC could be correlated with hepatitis B virus infection but not with patient sex, age, tumor size, or α-fetoprotein (AFP) level. Total RNAs were extracted from liver tissues or peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and IGF-II complementary DNA (cDNA) and AFP cDNA were synthesized through random primers and reverse transcriptase; gene fragments were amplified by nested polymerase chain reaction and confirmed by sequencing. The incidence of the hepatic IGF-II gene was 100% in HCC, 54.3% in paracancerous tissues, and none in noncancerous tissues. The incidence rates for circulating IGF-II and AFP genes were 34.3% and 52.7%, respectively, and for both, 61.6% in patients with HCC. They were 100% in cases with extrahepatic metastasis. The IGF-II abnormality associates with HCC, and circulating IGF-II and IGF-II mRNA are useful molecular markers for HCC differential diagnosis and hematogenous metastasis.
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22
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Jeng JE, Chuang LY, Chuang WL, Chang JG, Tsai JF. Insulin-like growth factor II in hepatocellular carcinoma. Biomark Med 2010; 1:261-71. [PMID: 20477401 DOI: 10.2217/17520363.1.2.261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common malignant human tumors. Hepatocarcinogenesis is a multistep process with a multifactorial etiology. Chronic hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus infection, alcohol drinking and cirrhosis of any etiology are the major risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma. Growth factors, their receptors and related proteins are involved in the process of malignant transformation. The IGF axis is involved in the proliferation and differentiation of normal, transformed and malignant hepatocytes. In the context of hepatocarcinogenesis, IGF-II has, in particular, been investigated thoroughly. Increased IGF-II bioavailability, protease activity of IGF-binding proteins and IGF-I receptor expression, decreased expression of IGF-II receptor and IGF-binding proteins are thought to contribute to hepatocellular carcinoma genesis. This review will first focus on the role of the IGF axis in hepatocarcinogenesis. In the second part it will emphasize circulating IGF-II levels in chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma, and diagnostic application of serum IGF-II level in both small and larger hepatocellular carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeng-Eing Jeng
- Kaohsiung Medical University, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Zender L, Villanueva A, Tovar V, Sia D, Chiang DY, Llovet JM. Cancer gene discovery in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2010; 52:921-9. [PMID: 20385424 PMCID: PMC2905725 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2009.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 11/30/2009] [Accepted: 12/31/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a deadly cancer, whose incidence is increasing worldwide. Albeit the main risk factors for HCC development have been clearly identified, such as hepatitis B and C virus infection and alcohol abuse, there is still preliminary understanding of the key drivers of this malignancy. Recent data suggest that genomic analysis of cirrhotic tissue - the pre-neoplastic carcinogenic field - may provide a read-out to identify at risk populations for cancer development. Given this contextual complexity, it is of utmost importance to characterize the molecular pathogenesis of this disease, and pinpoint the dominant pathways/drivers by integrative oncogenomic approaches and/or sophisticated experimental models. Identification of the dominant proliferative signals and key aberrations will allow for a more personalized therapy. Pathway-based approaches and functional experimental studies have aided in identifying the activation of different signaling cascades in HCC (e.g. epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, RAS, MTOR, WNT-betacatenin, etc.). However, the introduction of new high-throughput genomic technologies (e.g. microarrays, deep sequencing, etc.), and increased sophistication of computational biology (e.g. bioinformatics, biomodeling, etc.), opens the field to new strategies in oncogene and tumor suppressor discovery. These oncogenomic approaches are framed within emerging new disciplines such as systems biology, which integrates multiple inputs to explain cancer onset and progression. In addition, the consolidation of sophisticated animal models, such as mosaic cancer mouse models or the use of transposons for mutagenesis screens, have been instrumental for the identification of novel tumor drivers. We herein review some classical as well as some recent fast track approaches for oncogene discovery in HCC, and provide a comprehensive landscape of the currently known spectrum of molecular aberrations involved in hepatocarcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Zender
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig 38124, Germany
- Dept. of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Augusto Villanueva
- HCC Translational Research Laboratory, Barcelona-Clinic Liver Cancer Group, Liver Unit. Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Agusto Pi i Sunyer [IDIBAPS], Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enferme dades Hepáticas y Digestivas [CIBEREHD], Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, 08036, Spain
| | - Victoria Tovar
- HCC Translational Research Laboratory, Barcelona-Clinic Liver Cancer Group, Liver Unit. Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Agusto Pi i Sunyer [IDIBAPS], Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enferme dades Hepáticas y Digestivas [CIBEREHD], Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, 08036, Spain
| | - Daniela Sia
- HCC Translational Research Laboratory, Barcelona-Clinic Liver Cancer Group, Liver Unit. Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Agusto Pi i Sunyer [IDIBAPS], Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enferme dades Hepáticas y Digestivas [CIBEREHD], Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, 08036, Spain
| | - Derek Y. Chiang
- Department of Medical Oncology and Center for Cancer Genome Discovery, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Cancer Program, The Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Josep M. Llovet
- HCC Translational Research Laboratory, Barcelona-Clinic Liver Cancer Group, Liver Unit. Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques Agusto Pi i Sunyer [IDIBAPS], Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enferme dades Hepáticas y Digestivas [CIBEREHD], Hospital Clinic, Barcelona, 08036, Spain
- Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Catalonia, Spain
- Corresponding author Josep M Llovet, MD Professor of Research HCC Translational Research Lab BCLC Group, Liver Unit. CIBERehd Hospital Clínic Barcelona, IDIBAPS Villarroel 170 08036 Barcelona Catalonia, Spain Phone: +34-93.2279156 / Lab: +34-93.2279155
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Tovar V, Alsinet C, Villanueva A, Hoshida Y, Chiang DY, Solé M, Thung S, Moyano S, Toffanin S, Mínguez B, Cabellos L, Peix J, Schwartz M, Mazzaferro V, Bruix J, Llovet JM. IGF activation in a molecular subclass of hepatocellular carcinoma and pre-clinical efficacy of IGF-1R blockage. J Hepatol 2010; 52:550-9. [PMID: 20206398 PMCID: PMC3662876 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2010.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2009] [Revised: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS IGF signaling has a relevant role in a variety of human malignancies. We analyzed the underlying molecular mechanisms of IGF signaling activation in early hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC; BCLC class 0 or A) and assessed novel targeted therapies blocking this pathway. METHODS An integrative molecular dissection of the axis was conducted in a cohort of 104 HCCs analyzing gene and miRNA expression, structural aberrations, and protein activation. The therapeutic potential of a selective IGF-1R inhibitor, the monoclonal antibody A12, was assessed in vitro and in a xenograft model of HCC. RESULTS Activation of the IGF axis was observed in 21% of early HCCs. Several molecular aberrations were identified, such as overexpression of IGF2 -resulting from reactivation of fetal promoters P3 and P4-, IGFBP3 downregulation and allelic losses of IGF2R (25% of cases). A gene signature defining IGF-1R activation was developed. Overall, activation of IGF signaling in HCC was significantly associated with mTOR signaling (p=0.035) and was clearly enriched in the Proliferation subclass of the molecular classification of HCC (p=0.001). We also found an inverse correlation between IGF activation and miR-100/miR-216 levels (FDR<0.05). In vitro studies showed that A12-induced abrogation of IGF-1R activation and downstream signaling significantly decreased cell viability and proliferation. In vivo, A12 delayed tumor growth and prolonged survival, reducing proliferation rates and inducing apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Integrative genomic analysis showed enrichment of activation of IGF signaling in the Proliferation subclass of HCC. Effective blockage of IGF signaling with A12 provides the rationale for testing this therapy in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Tovar
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Clara Alsinet
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Augusto Villanueva
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | | | | | - Manel Solé
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Swan Thung
- Mount Sinai Liver Cancer Program. Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Susana Moyano
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Sara Toffanin
- Mount Sinai Liver Cancer Program. Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA.,Liver Cancer Group. Gastrointestinal Surgery and Liver Transplantation Unit, National Cancer Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Beatriz Mínguez
- Mount Sinai Liver Cancer Program. Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Laia Cabellos
- Mount Sinai Liver Cancer Program. Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Judit Peix
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Myron Schwartz
- Mount Sinai Liver Cancer Program. Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Vincenzo Mazzaferro
- Liver Cancer Group. Gastrointestinal Surgery and Liver Transplantation Unit, National Cancer Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Jordi Bruix
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Josep M. Llovet
- BCLC Group. [HCC Translational Lab, Liver Unit and Pathology Department], Hospital Clínic, CIBERehd, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.,Mount Sinai Liver Cancer Program. Division of Liver Diseases, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA.,Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA). Generalitat de Catalunya. Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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Liou JM, Shun CT, Liang JT, Chiu HM, Chen MJ, Chen CC, Wang HP, Wu MS, Lin JT. Plasma insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-2 levels as diagnostic and prognostic biomarker of colorectal cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95:1717-25. [PMID: 20157191 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2009-2668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Overexpression of IGF-II and IGF-binding protein (IGFBP)-2 has been reported in several cancers. OBJECTIVE We aimed to assess the roles of plasma IGF-II and IGFBP-2 levels as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and the impact of loss of imprinting (LOI) of IGF-II on the survival of colorectal cancer (CRC). DESIGN We conducted a case control and prospective cohort study for diagnostic and prognostic values, respectively. PATIENTS AND SETTING Plasma levels of IGF-II and IGFBP-2 were measured in 162 patients with CRC before surgery, in paired 15 patients after curative surgery, in 24 patients with advanced colon polyps, and in 114 healthy controls between 2003 and 2006 in National Taiwan University Hospital. RESULTS The area under the curve values of using IGFBP-2 as a diagnostic marker for advanced colon polyp and CRC were 0.654 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.547-0.76; P = 0.017] and 0.815 (95% CI = 0.766-0.864; P < 0.001), respectively. The sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing CRC were 80.2 and 64%, respectively, if the cutoff value of IGFBP-2 was 377 ng/ml. In the multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression model, higher IGFBP-2 levels were associated with increased risk of mortality [hazard ratio (HR) = 2.46; P = 0.017], whereas higher IGF-II levels were associated with reduced risk of mortality (HR = 0.42; P = 0.044). LOI of IGF-II was associated with increased risk of mortality (HR = 7.91; P = 0.014) in patients with stage IV disease. CONCLUSIONS IGFBP-2 is a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker of CRC. LOI of IGF-II is significantly associated with poor prognosis in patients with stage IV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyh-Ming Liou
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University, College of Medicine, No. 7, Chung-Shan S. Road, Taipei 100, Taiwan
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Lawson EA, Zhang X, Crocker JT, Wang WL, Klibanski A. Hypoglycemia from IGF2 overexpression associated with activation of fetal promoters and loss of imprinting in a metastatic hemangiopericytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94:2226-31. [PMID: 19383775 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2009-0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT The mechanism of IGF2 overexpression in non-islet-cell tumor hypoglycemia is not understood. OBJECTIVE We investigated the imprinting control and promoter usage for IGF2 expression to identify a mechanism for increased IGF-II production in non-islet-cell tumor hypoglycemia. PATIENT AND METHODS A patient with metastatic hemangiopericytoma was studied. Tissue from the original hemangiopericytoma, metastatic tumor, and uninvolved liver was analyzed for IGF-II immunohistochemistry. IGF2, a paternally imprinted gene, shares a control region with maternally imprinted H19, a putative tumor suppressor. IGF-II and H19 mRNA expression was compared in metastatic tumor and uninvolved liver by quantitative RT-PCR. Imprinting of IGF2/H19 genes and IGF2 promoter usage in metastatic tumor was investigated by RT-PCR and sequence analysis, and the methylation pattern in the IGF2/H19 imprinting control region was analyzed. RESULTS IGF-II protein expression was increased in metastatic tumor vs. uninvolved liver and original tumor. In the metastatic tumor, IGF-II mRNA was increased 60-fold, but H19 mRNA was comparable to uninvolved liver; loss of imprinting of IGF2, but not H19, was identified; no major change in methylation of the IGF2/H19 imprinting control regions was observed; and transcripts from four different IGF2 promoters were detected, compared to two in uninvolved liver. CONCLUSIONS IGF-2 overexpression, newly acquired in the metastatic tumor, was associated with loss of IGF2 gene imprinting and different promoter usage. The imprinting control mechanism governing the IGF2/H19 locus was intact, as evidenced by normal levels of H19, maintenance of H19 imprinting, and no major change in methylation of the imprinting control regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Lawson
- Neuroendocrine Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
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Pogribny IP, Beland FA. DNA hypomethylation in the origin and pathogenesis of human diseases. Cell Mol Life Sci 2009; 66:2249-61. [PMID: 19326048 PMCID: PMC11115809 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-009-0015-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/06/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of any given human disease is a complex multifactorial process characterized by many biologically significant and interdependent alterations. One of these changes, specific to a wide range of human pathologies, is DNA hypomethylation. DNA hypomethylation signifies one of the major DNA methylation states that refers to a relative decrease from the "normal" methylation level. It is clear that disease by itself can induce hypomethylation of DNA; however, a decrease in DNA methylation can also have an impact on the predisposition to pathological states and disease development. This review presents evidence suggesting the involvement of DNA hypomethylation in the pathogenesis of several major human pathologies, including cancer, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor P Pogribny
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
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Li Y, Meng G, Huang L, Guo QN. Hypomethylation of the P3 promoter is associated with up-regulation of IGF2 expression in human osteosarcoma. Hum Pathol 2009; 40:1441-7. [PMID: 19427670 DOI: 10.1016/j.humpath.2009.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2008] [Revised: 02/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Gene hypomethylation and hypermethylation can lead to a loss of genetic imprinting in malignancies. The mechanism responsible for overexpression of the imprinted insulin-like growth factor II (IGF2) gene has not been investigated in osteosarcoma. In this study, the expression levels, imprinting status, and the extent of cytosine methylation of the IGF2 gene was evaluated in 20 of 24 cases of osteosarcoma using immunohistochemistry, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, restriction fragment length polymorphism, and bisulfite genomic sequencing. Promoter use analysis indicated that P3- and P4-derived messenger RNAs were more highly expressed than P1 transcripts in the osteosarcoma samples. Loss of imprinting of IGF2 was observed in 3 of 20 of the osteosarcoma samples, but this was not associated with IGF2-specific transcripts. Methylation analysis revealed that the methylation patterns of the differentially methylated region of IGF2 were not uniform, regardless of IGF2-P3 expression. However, the average degree of methylation of the 14 CpG sites in the IGF2-P3 promoter was significantly lower in osteosarcoma samples with P3 transcripts than in osteosarcoma samples without P3 expression (P < .05). This observation was also observed in nontumor samples. These data suggest that hypomethylation of the IGF2-P3 promoter correlates with expression of P3 transcripts in osteosarcoma. Furthermore, elevated IGF2-P3 expression in osteosarcoma tissues is due to P3 promoter hypomethylation, which may represent an early event in progression of osteosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Li
- Institute of Pathology, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Calvisi DF, Evert M, Dombrowski F. Hepatocarcinogenesis following pancreatic islet transplantation in streptozotocin- and autoimmune-diabetic rats. Arch Physiol Biochem 2009; 115:97-104. [PMID: 19485705 DOI: 10.1080/13813450902870457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies assign a role to insulin signalling deregulation and diabetes mellitus in human hepatocarcinogenesis. The underlying mechanisms, however, remain largely unknown. To unravel the molecular pathogenesis of insulin-induced hepatocarcinogenesis, we generated an experimental animal model: after transplantation of only a low number of isologous pancreatic islets into the livers of diabetic rats, mild diabetes persists and the beta cells are maximally stimulated to permanently secrete insulin. As a consequence, liver acini, draining the hyperinsulinemic blood from islet grafts, show insulin-induced adaptive alterations simultaneously resembling preneoplastic foci of chemically-induced hepatocarcinogenesis models. These lesions progress to hepatocellular tumours within 6 and 24 months. Hepatocarcinogenesis is accompanied by alterations in hepatocytes metabolisms and changes in signal transduction pathways that, in the beginning, can be attributed solely to insulin action. In this review, we summarize our findings that may help understanding the oncogenic potential of diabetes mellitus in the human liver.
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Abstract
Multigenes and multigene interaction are involved in the development, recurrence and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma, while aberrant gene expression is the significant cause of recurrence and metastasis. Researches on gene changes and gene interaction in hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma are important for identifying the development, elucidating the pathogenesis, and guiding the prognosis and therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma.
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Breuhahn K, Schirmacher P. Reactivation of the insulin-like growth factor-II signaling pathway in human hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14:1690-8. [PMID: 18350600 PMCID: PMC2695909 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.14.1690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Constitutive activation of the insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-signaling axis is frequently observed in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Especially the overexpression of the fetal growth factor IGF-II, IGF-Ireceptor (IGF-IR), and cytoplasmic downstream effectors such as insulin-receptor substrates (IRS) contribute to proliferation, anti-apoptosis, and invasive behavior. This review focuses on the relevant alterations in this signaling pathway and independent in vivo models that support the central role IGF-II signaling during HCC development and progression. Since this pathway has become the center of interest as a target for potential anti-cancer therapy in many types of malignancies, various experimental strategies have been developed, including neutralizing antibodies and selective receptor kinase inhibitors, with respect to the specific and efficient reduction of oncogenic IGF-II/IGF-IR-signaling.
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Csepregi A, Röcken C, Hoffmann J, Gu P, Saliger S, Müller O, Schneider-Stock R, Kutzner N, Roessner A, Malfertheiner P, Ebert MPA. APC promoter methylation and protein expression in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2007; 15:1415-28. [PMID: 20629990 PMCID: PMC4373337 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2010.01124.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We investigated the impact of promoter methylation on APC protein expression in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). MATERIALS AND METHODS 50 patients [HCC (n=19), liver metastasis (n=19), cholangiocellular cancer (n=7), and benign liver tumors (n=5)] were studied for methylation using Methylight analysis. APC mutation was investigated by protein truncation test and direct sequencing of genomic DNA. The protein expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. RESULTS The APC promoter was hypermethylated in 81.8% of non-cancerous liver tissue samples. All HCC samples and ten patients with liver metastasis (52.6%) exhibited APC promoter methylation. The degree of methylation was significantly higher in samples from HCC compared to the non-cancerous liver tissue samples (63.1% vs. 24.98%; p=0.001). The level of APC protein expression was significantly reduced in HCC samples compared to that of the corresponding non-tumor liver tissue (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Promoter methylation of the APC gene seems to be of significance in hepatocarcinogenesis and results in reduced protein expression in HCC. Interestingly, APC promoter methylation is also present in the vast majority of non-cancerous liver tissue whose (patho)physiological function remains unresolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antal Csepregi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Infectious Diseases, Otto-von-Guericke University, Leipziger Strasse 44, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany.
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