The Prognostic and Therapeutic Role of Genomic Subtyping by Sequencing Tumor or Cell-Free DNA in Pulmonary Large-Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma

Efficacy of cadonilimab and anlotinib combination in treating multiple drug‑resistant pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma: A case report and literature review

Pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) has a poor prognosis, and there is no consensus on optimal treatment strategies for pulmonary LCNEC. Certain patients with pulmonary LCNEC may benefit from targeted and traditional programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1) monoclonal antibody therapies, however, for most patients, only a few drugs are effective after chemotherapy. The present report describes the case of a 68-year-old man with advanced pulmonary LCNEC treated with cadonilimab and anlotinib after becoming resistant to PD-1 monoclonal antibody therapy and multiple chemotherapies. Computed tomography was used to evaluate treatment response. The treatment was efficacious and met the partial response criteria after three treatment cycles, and the coughing and dyspnea resolved. The primary mass and lymph node metastases continued to shrink after five treatment cycles. Therefore, the present case report suggests that a combination of cadonilimab and anlotinib is a potential treatment strategy for patients with pulmonary LCNEC.

MET amplification correlates with poor prognosis and immunotherapy response as a subtype of melanoma: a multicenter retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal epithelial transition factor (MET) variant is an independent prognostic factor for worse prognosis in patients with lung cancer or gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma. MET gene variants can be regarded as a subtype of melanoma but there is a lack of studies regarding the frequency of MET genetic alterations and the efficacy of immunotherapy in melanoma patients. The purpose of this study is to explore potential therapeutic strategies for melanoma subtypes with MET alterations.

METHODS

A total of 1751 malignant melanomas were analyzed to illustrate the landscape of MET mutations. We collected 55 melanoma cases from multicenter for a retrospective cohort from 2010 to 2023. We analyzed the impact of MET amplification on the efficacy of immunotherapy in the retrospective cohort after propensity score matching (PSM) and a pancancer cohort. CIBERSORT was used to evaluate the immune infiltration.

RESULTS

There were no instances of MET 14 exon skipping, and only instances of MET amplification were found in the 1751 melanomas and our retrospective cohort. Cox proportional hazards model analysis showed that MET amplification (P = 0.006) was significantly associated with poorer overall survival (OS) in patients who received immunotherapy as the first-line treatment. Compared with patients with MET amplification, patients in the negative control (NC) group had a significantly better OS (P = 0.022) after PSM. Analysis of 1661 pancancer cases with the MSK-IMPACT assay showed that patients receiving immunotherapy in the MET amplification group had a trend toward worse OS than those without MET amplification (P = 0.025).

CONCLUSIONS

This database analysis showed that the main type of MET mutation is amplification in malignant melanoma. MET-amplified solid tumors might be considered for targeted therapy, as MET amplification can be regarded as a risk factor affecting the prognosis of patients with tumors treated with immunotherapy.

Clinical characteristics and treatment management of combined large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma, a subtype of large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma

Combined large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (CLCNEC) is a rare neuroendocrine carcinoma, accounting for approximately 10% of large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC). Mainly composed of coexisting adenocarcinoma components, with strong invasiveness and poor prognosis. The treatment regimen for CLCNEC mainly refers to complete surgical resection as the first choice in the early stage, while patients with stage II or higher require adjuvant treatment. At present, research on CLCNEC is mostly small sample and retrospective, and there is no consensus on whether molecular typing and treatment should be carried out. There is considerable controversy over whether it should be managed as small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) or non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Therefore, in order to solve the problem of confusion in the selection of treatment regimens for CLCNEC, while also considering the therapeutic effects, this article summarizes and analyzes previous studies, fully seeks evidence, and boldly proposes new therapeutic insights: the etoposide-platinum (EP) regimen serves as the basis for adjuvant therapy; In addition, SCLC/NSCLC-CLCNEC can be distinguished based on presence of RB1 and TP53 co-mutation, and targeted therapy or NSCLC type chemotherapy including platinum + gemcitabine or taxanes (NSCLC-GEM/TAX) can be used in combination or sequentially for NSCLC-CLCNEC.

Clinical and Pathologic Differences between Small-Cell Carcinoma and Large-Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of the Lung

BACKGROUND

Both small-cell carcinoma (SCLC) and large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) of the lung are often clinically dealt with as being in the same category as neuroendocrine carcinoma, and their clinical differences have not been adequately assessed.

METHODS

The postoperative prognosis was retrospectively analyzed using the data of 196 patients who underwent resection for SCLC or LCNEC.

RESULTS

Of the patients included, 99 (50.5%) had SCLC and 97 (49.5%) had LCNEC. The median duration of follow-up was 39 months (interquartile range [IQR] 21-76) and 56 months (IQR 21-87) for SCLC and LCNEC, respectively. The estimated 5-year overall survival (OS) probabilities were 53.7% and 62.7% (p = 0.133) for patients with SCLC and LCNEC, respectively. In the SCLC group, a multivariate analysis showed that adjuvant chemotherapy (hazard ratio 0.54, 95% confidence interval 0.30-0.99, p = 0.04) was the only factor that was significantly associated with OS. In the LCNEC group, univariate analyses demonstrated that pathologic stage I (p = 0.01) was the only factor that was associated with better OS after surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

We found different clinical features in SCLC and LCNEC; in patients with SCLC, because OS could be expected to significantly improve with postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy, patients with resected SCLC of any pathologic stage should receive adjuvant chemotherapy. For patients with LCNEC, because pathologic stage I LCNEC is related to better prognosis than any other stages, a thorough clinical staging, including invasive staging, according to present guidelines should be performed to identify clinical stage I LCNEC with the highest certainty.

[Advances of Treatment of Pulmonary Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma]

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) of lung is a rare neuroendocrine carcinoma subtype with difficulty in early diagnosis and poor prognosis which is treated with standard strategies of small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. In recent years, the precise types of LCNEC and its response to therapy have been identified by next-generation sequencing. Some researches have also found the correlation between different subtypes of LCNEC and the efficacy of chemotherapy regimens. However, there is no consensual agreement of its therapy. Recently, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has provided a new option for LCNEC patients based on some retrospective research data and case reports. In this review, we aimed to summarize the epidemiological characteristics, standard therapy, the advances of molecular subtypes and clinical applications of ICIs of LCNEC, so as to provide optimal systemic clinical decision-making for LCNEC patients.
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Patient-derived tumoroid models of pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma: a promising tool for personalized medicine and developing novel therapeutic strategies

Pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC), a disease with poor prognosis, is classified as pulmonary high-grade neuroendocrine carcinoma, along with small-cell lung cancer. However, given its infrequent occurrence, only a limited number of preclinical models have been established. Here, we established three LCNEC tumoroids for long-term culture. Whole-exome sequencing revealed that these tumoroids inherited genetic mutations from their parental tumors; two were classified as small-cell carcinoma (S-LCNEC) and one as non-small cell carcinoma (N-LCNEC). Xenografts from these tumoroids in immunodeficient mice mimicked the pathology of the parent LCNEC, and one reproduced the mixed-tissue types of combined LCNEC with a component of adenocarcinoma. Drug sensitivity tests using these LCNEC tumoroids enabled the evaluation of therapeutic agent efficacy. Based on translational research, we found that a CDK4/6 inhibitor might be effective for N-LCNEC and that Aurora A kinase inhibitors might be suitable for S-LCNEC or LCNEC with MYC amplification. These results highlight the value of preclinical tumoroid models in understanding the pathogenesis of rare cancers and developing treatments. LCNEC showed a high success rate in tumoroid establishment, indicating its potential application in personalized medicine.

Efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in advanced large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the lung: A single‑institution experience

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is a rare and highly invasive lung cancer subtype with an overall poor prognosis. Due to its low incidence rate and unusual pathological features, the clinical management of LCNEC remains controversial. The present study aimed to assess the effect of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) on treatment response and survival outcomes in patients with advanced LCNEC. The clinical data from 148 patients with LCNEC treated with ICIs at The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University (Zhengzhou, China) between January 2019 and September 2021 were retrospectively analyzed. Kaplan-Meier and multivariable Cox regression analyses were used to evaluate associations between clinicopathological variables and patient outcomes. Patients treated with ICIs demonstrated extended median overall survival (mOS) times [23.5 months; 95% confidence interval (CI), 18.524-28.476] compared with patients who did not receive ICIs (11.2 months; 95% CI, 4.530-18.930) (P<0.001). Univariate analysis revealed that histological subtype (P=0.043), lymph node metastases (P=0.032) and number of metastatic organs (P=0.009) were associated with a poor prognosis. The heterogeneity of pathological components was associated with prognosis, and the mOS time was shorter for mixed LCNEC than that for pure LCNEC (P=0.043). The median progression-free survival (mPFS) (9.78 vs. 9.37 months; P=0.82) and mOS (20.70 vs. 25.79 months; P=0.181) times showed no significant association with regard to different regimens of immuno-based combination therapy (chemotherapy combined with ICIs vs. anti-angiogenic agents combined with ICIs). Poor Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status score (P=0.04), multiple organ metastases (P=0.02) and high cancer antigen 125 levels (P=0.01) were independent risk factors of a poor prognosis. The present findings offer valuable insights into potential prognostic markers and highlight the favorable impact of ICIs on OS in advanced LCNEC. Prospective clinical studies are required to validate the therapeutic value of ICIs in LCNEC.

Molecular features of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine carcinoma: A comparative analysis with lung neuroendocrine carcinoma and digestive adenocarcinomas

Objective

There is an ongoing debate about whether the management of gastroenteropancreatic (GEP) neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC) should follow the guidelines of small-cell lung cancer (SCLC). We aim to identify the genetic differences of GEPNEC and its counterpart.

Methods

We recruited GEPNEC patients as the main cohort, with lung NEC and digestive adenocarcinomas as comparative cohorts. All patients undergone next-generation sequencing (NGS). Different gene alterations were compared and analyzed between GEPNEC and lung NEC (LNEC), GEPNEC and adenocarcinoma to yield the remarkable genes.

Results

We recruited 257 patients, including 99 GEPNEC, 57 LNEC, and 101 digestive adenocarcinomas. Among the mutations, KRAS, RB1, TERT, IL7R, and CTNNB1 were found to have different gene alterations between GEPNEC and LNEC samples. Specific genes for each site were revealed: gastric NEC ( TERT amplification), colorectal NEC ( KRAS mutation), and bile tract NEC ( ARID1A mutation). The gene disparities between small-cell NEC (SCNEC) and large-cell NEC (LCNEC) were KEAP1 and CDH1. Digestive adenocarcinoma was also compared with GEPNEC and suggested RB1, APC, and KRAS as significant genes. The TP53/ RB1 mutation pattern was associated with first-line effectiveness. Putative targetable genes and biomarkers in GEPNEC were identified in 22.2% of the patients, and they had longer progression-free survival (PFS) upon targetable treatment [12.5 months vs. 3.0 months, HR=0.40 (0.21-0.75), P=0.006].

Conclusions

This work demonstrated striking gene distinctions in GEPNEC compared with LNEC and adenocarcinoma and their clinical utility.

The outcomes of different regimens depend on the molecular subtypes of pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma: A retrospective study in China

BACKGROUND

The optimal systemic treatment for pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) remains controversial, and recent advances in LCNEC molecular subtype classification have provided potential strategies for assisting in treatment decisions. Our study aimed to investigate the impact of treatment regimens, molecular subtypes and their concordance on clinical outcomes of patients diagnosed with LCNEC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

All patients diagnosed with advanced pulmonary LCNEC in Peking Union Medical College Hospital (PUMCH) between January 2000 and October 2021 were enrolled in this retrospective study. The tumor samples were collected and sequenced using a tumor-specific gene panel, while clinical information was retrieved from the medical records system. The survival and therapeutic response were analyzed and compared between different subgroups classified by treatment regimen (SCLC or NSCLC-based), molecular subtype (type I or II) or the combination.

RESULTS

In univariate subgroup analysis categorized only by treatment regimen or molecular subtype, there were no differences identified in DCR, ORR, PFS, or OS. Nevertheless, the group with consistent treatment regimen and molecular subtype exhibited significantly longer OS than that of the inconsistent group (median OS 37.7 vs. 8.3 months; p = 0.046). Particularly, the OS of patients with type II LCNEC treated with SCLC-based regimen was significantly prolonged than that of others (median 37.7 vs. 10.5 months; p = 0.039).

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our study revealed the clinical outcomes of different treatment regimens for LCNEC patients highly depend on their molecular subtypes, highlighting the need for sequencing-guided therapy.

Exploring the molecular features and genetic prognostic factors of pulmonary high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas

Molecular research on large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) and small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) has progressed significantly. However, there are still fewer molecular markers related to prognostic/therapeutic strategies for these conditions compared to those for adenocarcinoma. We therefore investigated the molecular characteristics of neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs). We enrolled patients surgically diagnosed with NECs between 2011 and 2019, with complete follow-up records. All were analyzed using whole exome sequencing and p53/Rb immunohistochemistry (IHC). A total of 92 cases, comprising 45 pure SCLC, 15 combined SCLC, 27 pure LCNEC, and 5 combined LCNEC, were included. TP53 (78.3%) and RB1 (34.8%) were the most common molecular alterations, followed by KMT2D, LRP1B, FAT3, NCOR2, SPTA1, and NOTCH1. The mutation frequency for EGFR was 10.9%. Sixteen patients with LCNEC who had TP53/RB1 co-alterations were SCLC-like, while the remaining were NSCLC-like. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups regarding overall survival (OS; p = 0.458) and progression-free survival (PFS; p = 0.157). The frequency of the loss of Rb expression by IHC in SCLC-like LCNEC was 100%. Significant pathway alterations unique to SCLC included Notch and AMPK, while HIF-1 was enriched exclusively in LCNEC. NCOR2 mutation was linked to worse OS (p = 0.029) and PFS (p = 0.015), while wild-type SPTA1 was associated with poor PFS (p = 0.018). IHC for Rb was reliable for predicting LCNEC molecular subtypes, indicating its clinical value. NCOR2 and SPTA1 alterations were identified as prognostic factors that may provide therapeutic targets for patients with NEC.

Two case reports: EML4-ALK rearrangement large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma and literature review

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase gene (ALK) rearrangement is present in only approximately 5% of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs) and is scarce in LCNEC patients. The conventional first-line treatment options are chemotherapy combined with immunotherapy or chemotherapy followed by palliative radiotherapy. In this report, we present two cases of metastatic LCNEC with EML4-ALK fusion that were treated with ALK-TKI inhibitors and demonstrated a rapid therapeutic response. Both patients were nonsmoking women who declined cytotoxic chemotherapy, underwent Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), and confirmed EML4-ALK fusion. They were treated with alectinib as first-line therapy, and the tumors showed significant shrinkage after two months, achieving a PR (defined as a more than 30% decrease in the sum of maximal dimensions). The PFS was 22 months and 32 months, respectively, until the last follow-up. A systematic review of all previously reported cases of LCNEC with ALK mutations identified only 21 cases. These cases were characterized by being female (71.4%), nonsmoking (85.7%), diagnosed at a relatively young age (median age 51.1), and stage IV (89.5%), with an overall response rate (ORR) of 90.5%. PFS and OS were significantly longer than those treated with conventional chemotherapy/immunotherapy. Based on the clinical characteristics and the effective therapeutic outcomes with ALK inhibitors in LCNEC patients with ALK fusion, we recommend routine ALK IHC (economical, affordable, and convenient, but with higher false positives) as a screening method in advanced LCNEC patients, particularly nonsmoking females or those who are not candidates for or unwilling to undergo cytotoxic chemotherapy. Further molecular profiling is necessary to confirm these potential beneficiaries. We suggest TKI inhibitors as the first-line treatment for metastatic LCNEC with ALK fusion. Additional studies on larger cohorts are required to assess the prevalence of ALK gene fusions and their sensitivity to various ALK inhibitors.

BRAF V600E-mutated large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma responding to targeted therapy: a case report and review of the literature

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is a rare and aggressive high-grade neuroendocrine tumor, commonly arising in the lung or in the gastrointestinal tract, with a frequent proportion of unknown primary origin (20%). In the metastatic setting, platinum-based or fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapeutic regimens are as considered the first-line treatment, despite the limited duration of response. To date, the prognosis of advanced high-grade neuroendocrine carcinoma remains poor, suggesting the need to explore new treatment strategies in this orphan tumor. The evolving molecular landscape of LCNEC, not yet been completely defined, could explain the heterogeneous response to different chemotherapeutic regimens and suggest that treatment strategy could be driven by molecular features. v-Raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (BRAF) mutations, well described in melanoma, thyroid cancer, colon cancer and lung adenocarcinoma, account for approximately 2% of cases in lung LCNEC. Here, we describe the case of a patient with a BRAF V600E-mutated LCNEC of unknown primary origin who partially responded to BRAF/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitors after standard treatment. Additionally, BRAF V600E circulating tumor DNA was used to monitor disease response. Thereafter, we reviewed the available literature about the role of targeted therapy in high-grade neuroendocrine neoplasms to provide insight for future research to identify patients with driver oncogenic mutations, who can potentially benefit from target therapy.

Pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC): a population-based study addressing recent molecular-genetic advances and emerging therapeutic approaches

BACKGROUND

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) of the lung is a rare, aggressive cancer most commonly found in the lungs but not exclusively, with a worse prognosis than non-small cell lung carcinomas. Currently, LCNEC patients are treated using small cell and non-small cell protocols. This study aims to use the SEER database to identify demographic, clinical, pathological, and therapeutic factors affecting the prognosis and survival of patients with LCNEC of the lung.

METHODS

Demographic, clinical, and management data of patients with lung LCNEC were extracted from the SEER database for the period 2000-2018.

RESULTS

In the USA, LCNEC has a higher incidence in elderly white men: M:F ratio = 1.2:1, Caucasian: 83.3%, mean age: 67 ± 10.2 years. The most common treatment modality was chemotherapy only: 29.2%, followed by surgery: 21.5% (but in this group the statuses of chemotherapy were unknown), and combination surgery/chemotherapy: 8.8%. The overall and cause-specific 5-year survival was 17.5% (95% CI 16.3-18.8) and 21.9% (95% CI 20.5-23.4), respectively. By treatment, the best 5-year survival was for surgery alone (48%), followed by multimodality therapy (chemo + surgery + radiation) at 35% (95% CI 27-43). Age > 60 years, male gender, size > 7 cm, and nodal and liver metastasis were independent risk factors associated with increased mortality.

CONCLUSION

Lung LCNEC is an aggressive neoplasm most common in older white males that presents at an advanced stage despite small primary tumors. Most patients die within 2 years. The best predictor of survival is surgery with chemotherapy. Given its dismal prognosis, new treatment guidelines are needed for this aggressive cancer.

Combined large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma, lung adenocarcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma: a case report and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Combined large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (C-LCNEC) has a poor prognosis and there is no consensus about the treatment regimen for both LCNEC and C-LCNEC patients.

CASE PRESENTATION

The patient was a 47-year-old female who received surgical resection. The postoperative histology and staging of the tumor suggested C-LCNEC with adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma and T2aN0M0 stage IB. Next-generation sequencing test showed KIF5B/RET fusion mutation without EGFR, ALK, RB1, and TP53 alterations. Adjuvant chemotherapy with 4-cycle docetaxel plus carboplatin was given and brain metastasis occurred after 10 months.

CONCLUSIONS

C-LCNEC with adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma is rare and highly aggressive cancer. Surgical resection and adjuvant chemotherapy with SCLC regimen may improve the disease-free survival and overall survival. The accumulation of similar cases will clarify the profile and management of the disease.

The Unmet Diagnostic and Treatment Needs in Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of the Lung

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the lung (LCNEC) is currently classified as a rare lung cancer subtype, but given the high incidence of lung cancer, the overall number of cases is considerable. The pathologic diagnosis of LCNEC is mainly based on the microscopic appearance of the tumor cells, the mitotic rate, the amount of intra-tumoral necrosis, and the presence of positive neuroendocrine markers identified by immunohistochemistry. Recently, a subdivision into two main categories was proposed based on mutation signatures involving the RB1, TP53, KRAS, and STK11/LKB1 genes, into SCLC-like (small cell lung cancer-like) and NSCLC-like (non-small cell lung cancer-like) LCNEC. In terms of treatment, surgery is still the best option for resectable, stage I-IIIA cases. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy have conflicting evidence. Etoposide/platinum remains the standard chemotherapy regimen. However, based on the newly proposed LCNEC subtypes, some retrospective series report better outcomes using a pathology-driven chemotherapy approach. Encouraging outcomes have also been reported for immunotherapy and targeted therapy, but the real impact of these strategies is still being determined in the absence of adequate prospective clinical trials. The current paper scrutinized the epidemiology, reviewed the reliability of pathologic diagnosis, discussed the need for molecular subtyping, and reviewed the heterogeneity of treatment algorithms in LCNEC.

Systemic treatment for neuroendocrine non-small cell lung carcinoma: A cases series and a systematic review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

Neuroendocrine lung cancer constitutes a continuum from carcinoid tumours (CT) to large cell neuroendocrine (LCNEC) and small-cell carcinomas (SCLC). Except for SCLC, there is no consensual agreement on systemic therapy. The aim of this study is to review our clinical experience among patients with CT and LCNEC in the light of a systematic review of the literature.

METHODS

A retrospective study of all patients with CT and LCNEC receiving a systemic therapy at Institut Jules Bordet and Erasme Hospital between 01/01/2000-31/12/2020. A systematic review of the literature was performed in Ovid Medline.

RESULTS

53 patients (21 CT and 32 LCNEC) were included. Despite limited response rates, patients with CT receiving a "carcinoid-like" 1st-line regimen (somatostatin analogues (SSA), everolimus, peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT)) had a numerically longer survival compared to those receiving other type of regimens (median 51.4 vs 18.6 months, respectively; p = 0.17). We observed a similar survival between 1st line "SCLC-like" vs "non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)-like" schemes in LCNEC (median 11.2 vs 12.6 months, respectively; p = 0.46). The systematic review identified 23 studies (12 prospective, 15 and 8 for CT and LCNEC respectively). For CT, everolimus and SSA led to prolonged disease control with an acceptable toxicity profile, while higher response rates but lower tolerance were associated with PRRT and chemotherapy regimens including oxaliplatine and dacarbazine. For LCNEC, no difference emerged when comparing "SCLC-like" and "NSCLC-like" regimens considering response rate, progression-free or overall survival.

CONCLUSIONS

SSA, everolimus and PRRT present a good therapeutic index for CT, while the role of chemotherapy remains limited to aggressive and rapidly evolving CT. The best type of chemotherapy regimen remains an open question in LCNEC.

Spotlight on Small-Cell Lung Cancer and Other Lung Neuroendocrine Neoplasms

Lung neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) encompass a spectrum of neoplasms that are subdivided into the well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors comprising the low- and intermediate-grade typical and atypical carcinoids, respectively, and the poorly differentiated, high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas including large-cell neuroendocrine carcinomas and small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). Here, we review the current morphological and molecular classifications of the NENs on the basis of the updated WHO Classification of Thoracic Tumors and discuss the emerging subclassifications on the basis of molecular profiling and the potential therapeutic implications. We focus on the efforts in subtyping SCLC, a particularly aggressive tumor with few treatment options, and the recent advances in therapy with the adoption of immune checkpoint inhibitors in the frontline setting for patients with extensive-stage SCLC. We further highlight the promising immunotherapy strategies in SCLC that are currently under investigation.

Expression of p53 and Rb reveal subtypes of gastric neuroendocrine carcinoma with distinct prognosis

Gastric neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC) is a rare tumor with a poor prognosis. Due to its rarity and disparity in prevalence across populations, there is limited data on gastric NEC. TP53 and RB1 genetic alterations or expression were reported for predictive value in neuroendocrine neoplasm and classification in pulmonary large cell NEC. This study investigated the genetic alteration and protein expression of TP53 and RB1 in gastric NEC. Thirty-nine patients were categorized as type A and B subtypes by p53 and Rb expression. Patients with concurrent abnormal p53 and Rb expression were defined as the type A group, and the remainder were defined as the type B group. Significant differences in TNM stages, tumor size, and lymph node metastasis were observed between the two subtypes. Type A characteristic is an independent predictor for worse overall survival (HR: 3.27; 95% CI: 1.12-9.58; p = .022). We further evaluated and compared immunotherapy-related markers, including PD-L1 expression, CD8 T cell infiltration, tumor mutation burden, and microsatellite instability in these two subtypes, whereas no significant differences were detected.

All Together Now: Standardization of Nomenclature for Neuroendocrine Neoplasms across Multiple Organs

Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) span virtually all organ systems and exhibit a broad spectrum of behavior, from indolent to highly aggressive. Historically, nomenclature and grading practices have varied widely across, and even within, organ systems. However, certain core features are recapitulated across anatomic sites, including characteristic morphology and the crucial role of proliferative activity in prognostication. A recent emphasis on unifying themes has driven an increasingly standardized approach to NEN classification, as delineated in the World Health Organization's Classification of Tumours series. Here, we review recent developments in NEN classification, with a focus on NENs of the pancreas and lungs.

Comparative study of the genomic landscape and tumor microenvironment among large cell carcinoma of the lung, large cell neuroendocrine of the lung, and small cell lung cancer

Deciphering the genomic profiles and tumor microenvironment (TME) in large cell carcinomas of the lung (LCC), large cell neuroendocrine of the lung (LCNEC), and small cell lung cancer (SCLC) might contribute to a better understanding of lung cancer and then improve outcomes. Ten LCC patients, 12 LCNEC patients, and 18 SCLC patients were enrolled. Targeted next-generation sequencing was used to investigate the genomic profiles of LCC, LCNEC, and SCLC. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) within cancer cell nests and in cancer stroma were counted separately. Precise 60% of LCNEC patients harbored classical non-small cell lung cancer driver alterations, occurring in BRAF, KRAS, ROS1, and RET. More than 70% of SCLC patients harbored TP53-RB1 co-alterations. Moreover, 88.9%, 40%, and 77.8% of LCC, LCNEC, and SCLC cases had a high tumor mutation burden level with more than 7 mutations/Mb. Furthermore, high index of CD68+ CD163+ (TILs within cancer cell nests/ TILs within cancer cell nests and in cancer stroma, P = .041, 548 days vs not reached) and CD163+ TILs (P = .041, 548 days vs not reached) predicted a shorter OS in SCLC. Our findings revealed the distinct genomic profiles and TME contexture among LCC, LCNEC, and SCLC. Our findings suggest that stratifying LCNEC/SCLC patients based on TME contexture might help clinical disease management.

Proposing Specific Neuronal Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition Genes as an Ancillary Tool for Differential Diagnosis among Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Neoplasms

Pulmonary neuroendocrine neoplasms (PNENs) are currently classified into four major histotypes, including typical carcinoid (TC), atypical carcinoid (AC), large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC), and small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). This classification was designed to be applied to surgical specimens mostly anchored in morphological parameters, resulting in considerable overlapping among PNENs, which may result in important challenges for clinicians' decisions in the case of small biopsies. Since PNENs originate from the neuroectodermic cells, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) gene expression shows promise as biomarkers involved in the genotypic transformation of neuroectodermic cells, including mutation burden with the involvement of chromatin remodeling genes, apoptosis, and mitosis rate, leading to modification in final cellular phenotype. In this situation, additional markers also applicable to biopsy specimens, which correlate PNENs subtypes with systemic treatment response, are much needed, and current potential candidates are neurogenic EMT genes. This study investigated EMT genes expression and its association with PNENs histotypes in tumor tissues from 24 patients with PNENs. PCR Array System for 84 EMT-related genes selected 15 differentially expressed genes among the PNENs, allowing to discriminate TC from AC, LCNEC from AC, and SCLC from AC. Functional enrichment analysis of the EMT genes differentially expressed among PNENs subtypes showed that they are involved in cellular proliferation, extracellular matrix degradation, regulation of cell apoptosis, oncogenesis, and tumor cell invasion. Interestingly, four EMT genes (MAP1B, SNAI2, MMP2, WNT5A) are also involved in neurological diseases, in brain metastasis, and interact with platinum-based chemotherapy and tyrosine-kinase inhibitors. Collectively, these findings emerge as an important ancillary tool to improve the strategies of histologic diagnosis in PNENs and unveil the four EMT genes that can play an important role in driving chemical response in PNENs.

Prognostic Factors across Poorly Differentiated Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: A Pooled Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs) are characterized by aggressive clinical course and poor prognosis. No reliable prognostic markers have been validated to date; thus, the definition of a specific NEC prognostic algorithm represents a clinical need. This study aimed to analyze a large NEC case series to validate the specific prognostic factors identified in previous studies on gastro-entero-pancreatic and lung NECs and to assess if further prognostic parameters can be isolated.

METHODS

A pooled analysis of four NEC retrospective studies was performed to evaluate the prognostic role of Ki-67 cut-off, the overall survival (OS) according to primary cancer site, and further prognostic parameters using multivariable Cox proportional hazards model and machine learning random survival forest (RSF).

RESULTS

422 NECs were analyzed. The most represented tumor site was the colorectum (n = 156, 37%), followed by the lungs (n = 111, 26%), gastroesophageal site (n = 83, 20%; 66 gastric, 79%) and pancreas (n = 42, 10%). The Ki-67 index was the most relevant predictor, followed by morphology (pure or mixed/combined NECs), stage, and site. The predicted RSF response for survival at 1, 2, or 3 years showed decreasing survival with increasing Ki-67, pure NEC morphology, stage III-IV, and colorectal NEC disease. Patients with Ki-67 <55% and mixed/combined morphology had better survival than those with pure morphology. Morphology pure or mixed/combined became irrelevant in NEC survival when Ki-67 was ≥55%. The prognosis of metastatic patients who did not receive any treatment tended to be worse compared to that of the treated group. The prognostic impact of Rb1 immunolabeling appears to be limited when multiple risk factors are simultaneously assessed.

CONCLUSION

The most effective parameters to predict OS for NEC patients could be Ki-67, pure or mixed/combined morphology, stage, and site.

Differential response in patients with large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the lung to initial therapy: A case series

BACKGROUND

Large cell neuroendocrine tumors of the lung (LCNEC) are rare. Chemotherapy with the small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) regimen is the most appropriate treatment for LCNEC. However, there is evidence that the non-small cell lung cancer regimen is also effective in some reported cases. Due to the differences in response to LCNEC treatment, a standard of care for LCNEC has not been established.

CASES

The clinical records of nine patients with LCNEC who were treated with anticancer drugs based on an SCLC regimen from March 2016 to March 2022 were retrospectively reviewed. The patients who responded to treatment after one cycle of systemic chemotherapy were compared to those who did not respond. All patients in the responder group had a performance status (PS) of 0 or 1. However, 5 of the 6 patients in the non-responder group had a PS of 2 or 3, indicating that many patients were in poor general condition. Although patients with multiple metastases to more than one organ prior to treatment were not identified in the responder group, five of these patients were in the non-responder group. In the non-responder group, all patients discontinued treatment due to deterioration of general condition during first-line treatment. Thus, none of them were able to start the second-line treatment.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study may suggest that early diagnosis and initiation of treatment before multiple organ metastasis development and PS decline may have clinical implications that could lead to improved treatment response in patients with LCNEC.

Pulmonary Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma

Pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is a rare subtype of malignant pulmonary tumor. The incidence rate of LCNEC was reported to be 0.3%–3% in lung cancers. Although LCNEC is classified as non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), it is more aggressive and malignant than other NSCLC, and its biological behavior is similar to that of small cell lung cancer (SCLC). Most of the LCNEC patients are elderly smoking male and the clinical manifestations are not specific. The imaging manifestations of the tumors are often located in the periphery and the upper lobes, and the enlargement of mediastinal or hilar lymph nodes is common. The diagnosis is mainly based on pathology by the histological features and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Specific neuroendocrine markers such as chromogranin A (CgA), synaptophysin (Syn) and CD56 are usually diffusely positive in LCNEC, and found that insulinoma-associated protein (INSM1) and high rate of Ki-67 are helpful for diagnosis. More differential diagnoses also increase the difficulty of correctly diagnosing LCNEC. The rise of LCNEC molecular typing in recent years may be helpful for diagnosis and subsequent treatment. This review focuses on the epidemiological features, imaging studies, pathology, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of LCNEC.

Treatment outcome and prognostic analysis of advanced large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the lung

The optimal systemic treatment of advanced large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is still controversial. We intend to explore advanced LCNEC through SEER database, construct nomogram model of advanced LCNEC, and understand the effect of different treatment regimens on LCNEC. We collected 909 patients, divided them into a training set validation set, constructed nomograms using Cox proportional hazards regression models, and evaluated nomogram discrimination and calibration by C-index and calibration curves. Kaplan–Meier will also be used to compare OS in different groups of patients and to explore the impact of different treatment regimens on advanced LCNEC. On the nomogram plotted, the nomogram predicted AUC values over time were always greater than 0.7, the C-index was 0.681 (95% CI 0.656–0.706) and 0.663 (95% CI 0.628–0.698) in the training and validation sets, respectively, and patients were divided into two groups according to risk, and a significant difference in OS was observed between the high-risk and low-risk groups in the training and validation cohorts. Different treatment analyses showed that chemotherapy is still the best treatment for advanced LCNEC. This nomogram provides a convenient and reliable tool for individual assessment and clinical decision-making of patients with advanced LCNEC.

Liquid biopsy using ascitic fluid and pleural effusion supernatants for genomic profiling in gastrointestinal and lung cancers

Background

Precision medicine highlights the importance of incorporating molecular genetic testing into standard clinical care. Next-generation sequencing can detect cancer-specific gene mutations, and molecular-targeted drugs can be designed to be effective for one or more specific gene mutations. For patients with special site metastases, it is particularly important to use appropriate samples for genetic profiling. This study aimed to determine whether genomic profiling using ASC and PE is effective in detecting genetic mutations.

Methods

Tissues, plasma, ascites (ASC) supernatants, and pleural effusion (PE) samples from gastrointestinal cancer patients with peritoneal metastasis and lung cancer patients with pleural metastasis were collected for comprehensive genomic profiling. The samples were subjected to next-generation sequencing using a panel of 59 or 1021 cancer-relevant genes panel.

Results

A total of 156 tissues, 188 plasma samples, 45 ASC supernatants, and 1 PE samples from 304 gastrointestinal cancer patients and 446 PE supernatants, 122 tissues, 389 plasma samples, and 45 PE sediments from 407 lung cancer patients were analyzed. The MSAF was significantly higher in ASC and PE supernatant than that in plasma ctDNA (50.00% vs. 3.00%, p < 0.0001 and 28.5% vs. 1.30%, p < 0.0001, respectively). The ASC supernatant had a higher actionable mutation rate and more actionable alterations than the plasma ctDNA in 26 paired samples. The PE supernatant had a higher total actionable mutation rate than plasma (80.3% vs. 48.4%, p < 0.05). The PE supernatant had a higher frequency of uncommon variations than the plasma regardless of distant organ metastasis.

Conclusion

ASC and PE supernatants could be better alternative samples when tumor tissues are not available, especially in patients with only peritoneal or pleural metastases.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-022-09922-5.

Comprehensive analysis of MET mutations in NSCLC patients in a real-world setting

Background:

Aberrant mesenchymal–epithelial transition/hepatocyte growth factor (MET/HGF) regulation presented in a wide variety of human cancers. MET exon 14 skipping, copy number gain (CNG), and kinase domain mutations/arrangements were associated with increased MET activity, and considered to be oncogenic drivers of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs).

Methods:

We retrospectively analyzed 564 patients with MET alterations. MET alterations were classified into structural mutations or small mutations. MET CNG, exon 14 skipping, gain of function (GOF) mutations, and kinase domain rearrangement were defined as actionable mutations.

Results:

Six hundred thirty-two MET mutations were identified including 199 CNG, 117 exon 14 skipping, 12 GOF mutations, and 2 actionable fusions. Higher percentage of MET structural alterations (CNG + fusion) were detected in advanced NSCLC patients. Moreover, MET CNG was enriched while exon 14 skipping was rare in epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKI)-treated advanced NSCLC patients. Ten of the 12 MET GOF mutations were also in EGFR-TKI-treated patients. Fifteen (68.1%) of the 22 patients treated with crizotinib or savolitinib had a partial response. Interestingly, one patient had a great response to savolitinib with a novel MET exon 14 skipping mutation identified after failure of immune-checkpoint inhibitor.

Conclusions:

Half of the MET alterations were actionable mutations. MET CNG, exon 14 skipping and GOF mutations had different distribution in different clinical scenario but all defined a molecular subgroup of NSCLCs for which MET inhibition was active.

Radiomics-Guided Precision Medicine Approaches for Colorectal Cancer

The concept of precision oncology entails molecular profiling of tumors to guide therapeutic interventions. Genomic testing through next-generation sequencing (NGS) molecular analysis provides the basis of such highly targeted therapeutics in oncology. As radiomic analysis delivers an array of structural and functional imaging-based biomarkers that depict these molecular mechanisms and correlate with key genetic alterations related to cancers. There is an opportunity to synergize these two big-data approaches to determine the molecular guidance for precision therapeutics. Colorectal cancer is one such disease whose therapeutic management is being guided by genetic and genomic analyses. We review the rationale and utility of radiomics as a combinative strategy for these approaches in the management of colorectal cancer.

Diagnostic criteria and evolving molecular characterization of pulmonary neuroendocrine carcinomas

Neuroendocrine carcinomas of the lung are currently classified into two categories: small cell lung carcinoma and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma. Diagnostic criteria for small cell- and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma are based solely on tumor morphology; however, overlap in histologic and immunophenotypic features between the two types of carcinoma can potentially make their classification challenging. Accurate diagnosis of pulmonary neuroendocrine carcinomas is paramount for patient management, as clinical course and treatment differ between small cell and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma. Molecular-genetic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data published over the past decade suggest that small cell and large cell neuroendocrine carcinomas are not homogeneous categories but rather comprise multiple groups of distinctive malignancies. Nuances in the susceptibility of small cell lung carcinoma subtypes to different chemotherapeutic regimens and the discovery of targetable mutations in large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma suggest that classification and treatment of neuroendocrine carcinomas may be informed by ancillary molecular and protein expression testing going forward. This review summarizes current diagnostic criteria, prognostic and predictive correlates of classification, and evidence of previously unrecognized subtypes of small cell and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma.

Survival After Lobectomy vs. Sublobar Resection for Stage IA Large-Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of the Lung: A Population-Based Study

Objective

Due to the low incidence of pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC), the survival analysis for comparing lobectomy and sublobar resection (SLR) for stage IA LCNEC remains scarce.

Methods

Patients diagnosed with pathological stage IA LCNEC between 1998 and 2016 were extracted from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database. The oncological outcomes were cancer-specific survival (CSS) and overall survival (OS). Kaplan–Meier analysis and Cox multivariate analysis were used to identify the independent prognostic factors for OS and CSS. Furthermore, propensity score matching (PSM) was performed between SLR and lobectomy to adjust the confounding factors.

Results

A total of 308 patients with stage IA LCNEC met the inclusion criteria: 229 patients (74.4%) received lobectomy and 79 patients (25.6%) received SLR. Patients who underwent SLR were older (P < 0.001), had smaller tumor size (P = 0.010), and less lymph nodes dissection (P < 0.001). The 5-year CSS and OS rates were 56.5 and 42.9% for SLR, and 67.8 and 55.7% for lobectomy, respectively (P = 0.037 and 0.019, respectively). However, multivariate analysis did not identify any differences between the SLR group and lobectomy group in CSS (P = 0.135) and OS (P = 0.285); and the PSM also supported these results. In addition, the age at diagnosis and laterality of tumor were identified as significant predictors for CSS and OS, whereas the number of lymph nodes dissection was a significant predictor for CSS.

Conclusions

Although SLR is not inferior to lobectomy in terms of oncological outcomes for patients with stage IA LCNEC, more lymph nodes can be dissected or sampled during lobectomy. Lobectomy should still be considered as a standard procedure for patients with early-stage LCNEC who are able to withstand lobectomy.

KRAS Mutation in Rare Tumors: A Landscape Analysis of 3453 Chinese Patients

KRAS is the most commonly mutated oncogene in human cancers. Targeted therapy and immunotherapy for this gene have made remarkable progress in recent years. However, comprehensive molecular landscape analysis of KRAS in rare tumors is lacking. Retrospective analysis was performed on clinical samples from patients with rare tumors collected between September 2015 and September 2021, using hybrid-capture-based next-generation sequencing for genomic profiling and immunohistochemistry assay for PD-L1. Of the 3,453 patients included in analysis, KRAS mutations were identified in 8.7% patients in overall; mutation rate and mutation subtypes varied widely across tumor systems and subtypes. KRAS mutations included 21 missense mutations, of which G12D (29.2%), G12V (24.6%), and G13D (10.8%) were most common. Interestingly, KRAS G12C was observed in 0.6% patients overall, and in 5.7% of sarcomatoid carcinoma of the lung and 5.4% of clear cell ovarian cancer tumors, but none in small-bowel cancer tumors. 31.8% KRAS mutations and 36.4% KRAS G12C mutations co-occurred with other targetable alterations. No significant correlation was observed between TMB-H, MSI-H, PD-L1 status, and KRAS mutation status, which may be related to the high proportion of G12D. This study is the first KRAS mutation landscape study in rare tumors of large sample size in China and worldwide. Our results suggest that targeted therapy and immunotherapy are both feasible, albeit complex, in these patients. This information may have significant impact on the operation of clinical trials for rare tumor patients with KRAS mutations in China.

Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of the Lung: Current Understanding and Challenges

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the lung (LCNEC) is a rare and highly aggressive type of lung cancer, with a complex biology that shares similarities with both small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The prognosis of LCNEC is poor, with a median overall survival of 8-12 months. The diagnosis of LCNEC requires the identification of neuroendocrine morphology and the expression of at least one of the neuroendocrine markers (chromogranin A, synaptophysin or CD56). In the last few years, the introduction of next-generation sequencing allowed the identification of molecular subtypes of LCNEC, with prognostic and potential therapeutic implications: one subtype is similar to SCLC (SCLC-like), while the other is similar to NSCLC (NSCLC-like). Because of LCNEC rarity, most evidence comes from small retrospective studies and treatment strategies that are extrapolated from those adopted in patients with SCLC and NSCLC. Nevertheless, limited but promising data about targeted therapies and immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with LCNEC are emerging. LCNEC clinical management is still controversial and standardized treatment strategies are currently lacking. The aim of this manuscript is to review clinical and molecular data about LCNEC to better understand the optimal management and the potential prognostic and therapeutic implications of molecular subtypes.

Molecular Characterization and Prognostication of Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma and Large Cell Carcinoma

PURPOSE

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) and classic large cell carcinoma (LCC) are two distinct entities with different histological and biological characteristics. However, the mutational profiles and the clinical behavior of the two subtypes of lung cancer remain to be explored.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Pathological diagnoses of all screened patients were finally confirmed by three or four experienced pathologists. Patients with uncertain pathological diagnoses were excluded. Finally, we genetically profiled ten patients with LCNEC and seven with LCC. ALL patients were subjected to next-generation sequencing (NGS) test, which included nine patients sequenced with a 139-gene panel and eight patients with a 425-gene panel. Including only intersected mutations from these two panels, survival analysis was further conducted.

RESULTS

Both LCNEC and LCC showed high prevalence in male patients, with no clear association with smoking history. Potential targetable mutations in KRAS and RET were detected in the study cohort. However, LCNEC and LCC showed distinct mutational profiles with an enrichment of RB1/TP53 co-mutations in a subset of LCNEC patients. SMARCA4 and KEAP1 mutations were exclusively found in LCC patients, and RICTOR, BRAF, ROS1 and TET2 mutations were only detected in LCNEC. LCC patients in the cohort had shorter survival compared to LCNEC patients (p=0.006). Survival analysis revealed an association between SMARCA4 mutations and poor outcome in the study cohort and in the LCC subset. Mutations in BRAF were associated with a trend of increased survival in the study cohort, as well as in the LCNEC subset. Finally, TET2 mutations were associated with poor outcome in the LCNEC cohort.

CONCLUSION

LCC and LCNEC were both heterogeneous diseases with limited treatment options. Our study identified potential targetable mutations and prognostic biomarkers that might provide more therapeutic options and improve individualized patient care.

Lung neuroendocrine neoplasms: recent progress and persistent challenges

This review summarizes key recent developments relevant to the pathologic diagnosis of lung neuroendocrine neoplasms, including carcinoids, small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC), and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC). Covered are recent insights into the biological subtypes within each main tumor type, progress in pathological diagnosis and immunohistochemical markers, and persistent challenging areas. Highlighted topics include highly proliferative carcinoids and their distinction from small cell and large cell neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs), the evolving role of Ki67, the update on the differential diagnosis of NEC to include thoracic SMARCA4-deficient undifferentiated tumors, the recent data on SCLC transcriptional subtypes with the emergence of POU2F3 as a novel marker for the diagnosis of SCLC with low/negative expression of standard neuroendocrine markers, and the update on the diagnosis of LCNEC, particularly in biopsies. There has been remarkable recent progress in the understanding of the genetic and expression-based profiles within each type of lung neuroendocrine neoplasm, and it is hoped that these insights will enable the development of novel diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarkers to aid in the pathologic assessment of these tumors in the future.

Molecular and immunophenotypic characterization of SMARCB1 (INI1) - deficient intrathoracic Neoplasms

The switch/sucrose-non-fermenting (SWI/SNF) complex is an ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complex that plays important roles in DNA repair, transcription and cell differentiation. This complex consists of multiple subunits and is of particular interest in thoracic malignancies due to frequent subunit alteration of SMARCA4 (BRG1). Much less is known about SMARCB1 (INI1) deficient intrathoracic neoplasms, which are rare, often misclassified and understudied. In a retrospective analysis of 1479 intrathoracic malignant neoplasms using immunohistochemistry for INI1 (SMARCB1) on tissue micro arrays (TMA) and a search through our hospital sarcoma database, we identified in total nine intrathoracic, INI1 deficient cases (n = 9). We characterized these cases further by additional immunohistochemistry, broad targeted genomic analysis, methylation profiling and correlated them with clinical and radiological data. This showed that genomic SMARCB1 together with tumor suppressor alterations drive tumorigenesis in some of these cases, rather than epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation. A proper diagnostic classification, however, remains challenging. Intrathoracic tumors with loss or alteration of SMARCB1 (INI1) are highly aggressive and remain often underdiagnosed due to their rarity, which leads to false diagnostic interpretations. A better understanding of these tumors and proper diagnosis is important for better patient care as clinical trials and more targeted therapeutic options are emerging.

Risk factors, survival analysis, and nomograms for distant metastasis in patients with primary pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma: A population-based study

INTRODUCTION

Pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is a rapidly progressive and easily metastatic high-grade lung cancer, with a poor prognosis when distant metastasis (DM) occurs. The aim of our study was to explore risk factors associated with DM in LCNEC patients and to perform survival analysis and to develop a novel nomogram-based predictive model for screening risk populations in clinical practice.

METHODS

The study cohort was derived from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database, from which we selected patients with LCNEC between 2004 to 2015 and formed a diagnostic cohort (n = 959) and a prognostic cohort (n = 272). The risk and prognostic factors of DM were screened by univariate and multivariate analyses using logistic and Cox regressions, respectively. Then, we established diagnostic and prognostic nomograms using the data in the training group and validated the accuracy of the nomograms in the validation group. The diagnostic nomogram was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic curves, decision curve analysis curves, and the GiViTI calibration belt. The prognostic nomogram was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic curves, the concordance index, the calibration curve, and decision curve analysis curves. In addition, high- and low-risk groups were classified according to the prognostic monogram formula, and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed.

RESULTS

In the diagnostic cohort, LCNEC close to bronchus, with higher tumor size, and with higher N stage indicated higher likelihood of DM. In the prognostic cohort (patients with LCNEC and DM), men with higher N stage, no surgery, and no chemotherapy had poorer overall survival. Patients in the high-risk group had significantly lower median overall survival than the low-risk group.

CONCLUSION

Two novel established nomograms performed well in predicting DM in patients with LCNEC and in evaluating their prognosis. These nomograms could be used in clinical practice for screening of risk populations and treatment planning.

The histologic phenotype of lung cancers is associated with transcriptomic features rather than genomic characteristics

Histology plays an essential role in therapeutic decision-making for lung cancer patients. However, the molecular determinants of lung cancer histology are largely unknown. We conduct whole-exome sequencing and microarray profiling on 19 micro-dissected tumor regions of different histologic subtypes from 9 patients with lung cancers of mixed histology. A median of 68.9% of point mutations and 83% of copy number aberrations are shared between different histologic components within the same tumors. Furthermore, different histologic components within the tumors demonstrate similar subclonal architecture. On the other hand, transcriptomic profiling reveals shared pathways between the same histologic subtypes from different patients, which is supported by the analyses of the transcriptomic data from 141 cell lines and 343 lung cancers of different histologic subtypes. These data derived from mixed histologic subtypes in the setting of identical genetic background and exposure history support that the histologic fate of lung cancer cells is associated with transcriptomic features rather than the genomic profiles in most tumors.

The molecular determinants of lung cancer histologic subtypes are not well understood. Here the authors analyze lung cancers of mixed histology and find that histologic subtypes are associated with transcriptomic features rather than genomic profiles in most tumors.

Cold and heterogeneous T cell repertoire is associated with copy number aberrations and loss of immune genes in small-cell lung cancer

Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) is speculated to harbor complex genomic intratumor heterogeneity (ITH) associated with high recurrence rate and suboptimal response to immunotherapy. Here, using multi-region whole exome/T cell receptor (TCR) sequencing as well as immunohistochemistry, we reveal a rather homogeneous mutational landscape but extremely cold and heterogeneous TCR repertoire in limited-stage SCLC tumors (LS-SCLCs). Compared to localized non-small cell lung cancers, LS-SCLCs have similar predicted neoantigen burden and genomic ITH, but significantly colder and more heterogeneous TCR repertoire associated with higher chromosomal copy number aberration (CNA) burden. Furthermore, copy number loss of IFN-γ pathway genes is frequently observed and positively correlates with CNA burden. Higher mutational burden, higher T cell infiltration and positive PD-L1 expression are associated with longer overall survival (OS), while higher CNA burden is associated with shorter OS in patients with LS-SCLC.

Genetic and treatment profiles of patients with concurrent Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) and Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase (ALK) mutations

Background

EGFR and ALK alternations often contribute to human malignancies, including lung cancer. EGFR and ALK mutations are usually sensitive to EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and ALK-TKIs. Although generally mutually exclusive, these mutations do co-exist in rare cases. This study investigated the frequencies, clinical characteristics, therapeutic efficacies, and genetic profiles of lung cancer patients with EGFR and ALK co-mutations.

Methods

Patients with concurrent EGFR and ALK mutations were included in this study, which analyzed mutation profiles and treatment histories. SPSS20.0 were used for survival analysis.

Results

Among 271 ALK-positive (ALK-pos) and 2975 EGFR-positive (EGFR-pos) patients in our database, nine (2.6% of ALK-pos and 0.2% of EGFR-pos) patients had concurrent EGFR and ALK mutations (including three exon19 Indel + EML4-ALK, two exon19 Indel + STRN-ALK, two L858R + L1152R, one L858R + EML4-ALK, and one G719C + S768I + STRN-ALK). Eight patients had at least one type of EGFR-TKIs treatment. The median progression free survival (PFS) of these patients on first-generation EGFR-TKIs was 14.5 months (95% CI: 11 - NR). Of these eight patients, one who progressed on Gefitinib and subsequently on Osimertinib had a T790M + C797G. The other seven EGFR-TKIs resistance patients had no known resistance mutations. No patients had ALK mutations before treatment, so ALK mutations may have developed as resistance mechanisms during EGFR-TKIs therapies. EGFR-TKIs-treated patients with EGFR/ALK L1152R mutations generally had a shorter PFS than patients with other mutation combinations.

Conclusions

ALK and EGFR mutations coincide at a relatively low frequency in lung cancer patients. ALK mutations developed either synchronously or heterochronously with EGFR mutations. Two ALK mutations (L1152R and STRN-ALK) may co-exist with EGFR mutations at a higher frequency than others. Most EGFR/ALK co-alteration patients (other than the EGFR/ALK L1152R type) can benefit from first line EGFR-TKIs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-08824-2.

Management of Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is a rare, aggressive cancer with a dismal prognosis. The majority of cases occur in the lung and the gastrointestinal tract; however, it can occur throughout the body. Recently advances in the understanding of the molecular underpinnings of this disease have paved the way for additional novel promising therapies. This review will discuss the current best evidence for management of LCNEC and new directions in the classification and treatment of this rare disease.

METHODS

We performed a PubMed search for "Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma" and "High grade neuroendocrine carcinoma." All titles were screened for relevance to the management of LCNEC. Papers were included based on relevance to the management of LCNEC.

RESULTS

Papers were included reviewing both pulmonary and extra pulmonary LCNEC. We summarized the data driven best practices for the management of both early and advanced stage LCNEC. We describe emerging therapies with promising potential.

DISCUSSION

LCNEC are rare and aggressive neoplasms. In advanced disease, the historical regimen of platinum based therapy in combination with etoposide or irinotecan remains among the commonly used first line therapies, however for extra thoracic LCNEC regimens like FOLFOX, FOLFOIRI and CAPTEM can also be used. Further effective and safe treatment options are desperately needed. Recently, new advances including a new understanding of the genetic subcategories of LCNEC and immunotherapy agents may guide further treatments.

[Advances in Molecular Biomarker for Pulmonary Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma]

Pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is a pathological subtype of lung neuroendocrine cancer, which accounts for 2.4%-3.1% in surgical specimens of lung cancer. It is characterized by high invasiveness and poor prognosis, and highly correlated with smoking. There are few relevant studies due to the low incidence and small sample size. Therefore, it is relatively difficult to diagnosis and treatment in clinical practice. In this review, we described molecular subtype, diagnostic and prognostic-related markers about large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of lung based on the recent progress in genomic sequencing and molecular markers, to find the direction for the next research.
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Genomic Profiling and Clinicopathological Characteristics of Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Lung in East Asian Patients

BACKGROUND/AIM

In recent years, the genomic landscape of neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) of the lung has been investigated. However, more data are necessary to elucidate the heterogeneous nature of NETs, especially in East Asian patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 64 patients who underwent surgical resection for lung NETs [26 typical or atypical carcinoid tumors, 21 large-cell neuroendocrine carcinomas (LCNECs), and 19 small-cell lung carcinomas (SCLCs)] were enrolled, and samples from 46 patients were subjected to targeted next-generation sequencing.

RESULTS

Co-mutations of tumor protein p53 (TP53) and RB transcriptional corepressor 1 (RB1) were detected in 15%, 42%, and 93% of carcinoid tumors, LCNECs, and SCLCs, respectively. Oncogenic or targetable genetic alterations identified in this study included mutations of KRAS proto-oncogene (KRAS), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA), ALK receptor tyrosine kinase (ALK), mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 (MAP2K1), and isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1), as well as amplifications of erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 2 (ERBB2), fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1), CD274 molecule (CD274), and MYCN proto-oncogene (MYCN). These alterations were more frequently found in high-grade NETs than in carcinoid tumors (33.3% vs. 7.7%). Programmed cell death-ligand 1 expression was strongly associated with the LCNEC subtype among NETs (p=0.002).

CONCLUSION

The mutational status of TP53 and RB1 was significantly associated with NET subtypes in East Asian patients. Targeted therapy or immunotherapy may serve as a treatment option in a subset of patients with high-grade NETs.

Treatment of Advanced-Stage Large Cell Neuroendocrine Cancer (LCNEC) of the Lung: A Tale of Two Diseases

LCNEC of the lung comprises a small proportion of pulmonary malignancies. Traditionally, they have been classified based on histologic and immunohistochemistry characteristics with features of small cell and non-small cell lung cancer. The treatment outcome of advanced-stage LCNEC of the lung is poor with response rates ranging from 34 to 46% with platinum doublets, median progression-free survival (mPFS) ranging between 4.4 and 5.8 m, and median overall survival (mOS) ranging from 8 to 12.6 m. The optimal treatment strategy for LCNEC is debated given limited data and different outcomes based on chemotherapy type reported in the available literature. Recently, genomic profiling with Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) has been able to sub-classify LCNEC as SCLC-like or NSCLC-like. Treatment based on this sub-classification has improved outcomes by using SCLC and NSCLC regimens based on their genomic profile in retrospective analysis. Future studies in LCNEC of the lung should incorporate this new molecular sub-classification as stratification and possibly include SCLC-like LCNEC into SCLC studies and NSCLC-like into NSCLC studies.

Efficacy and Safety of Combination Treatment With Apatinib and Osimertinib After Osimertinib Resistance in Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor-Mutant Non-small Cell Lung Carcinoma-A Retrospective Analysis of a Multicenter Clinical Study

Currently, there are limited treatment options for patients who developed resistance to osimertinib, a third-generation epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor. Resistance to EGFR inhibitors is frequently associated with enhanced vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels. This multicenter, retrospective study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of the combination treatment with apatinib and osimertinib in 39 patients with EGFR-mutant non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) who developed osimertinib resistance. The patients received the combination of oral apatinib 250 mg qd and osimertinib 80 mg qd. The efficacy was evaluated after the first month then every 2 months thereafter. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). The overall response rate (ORR) and the disease control rate (DCR) of the combination of apatinib and osimertinib was 12.8% (5/39) and 79.5% (31/39), respectively. The median PFS was 4 months [95% confidence interval (CI): 3.5-4.5 months]. Fourteen patients were administered with at least 6 months of combination therapy, and 11 of them remained on treatment programs. The 6-month PFS rate was 38%. Nine patients underwent biopsies after failing osimertinib treatment, and five of six patients with TP53 mutations had PFS of less than 3 months. The spectrum of resistance to osimertinib mechanisms included c-mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor (c-Met) amplification, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA) gain-of-function mutation, phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) loss-of-function mutation, Erb-B2 receptor tyrosine kinase 2 (ERBB2) amplification, and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) mutation. The most common adverse events were hypertension (30.7%, 12/39), diarrhea (15.4%, 6/39), and proteinuria (12.8%, 5/39). The combination of apatinib and osimertinib improved the ORR and the DCR of patients with osimertinib-refractory EGFR-positive NSCLC, thus making it a reasonable treatment choice after the development of osimertinib resistance.

Molecular Pathology of Pulmonary Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma: Novel Concepts and Treatments

Pulmonary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is an aggressive neoplasm with poor prognosis. Histologic diagnosis of LCNEC is not always straightforward. In particular, it is challenging to distinguish small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) or poorly differentiated carcinoma from LCNEC. However, histological classification for LCNEC as well as their therapeutic management has not changed much for decades. Recently, genomic and transcriptomic analyses have revealed different molecular subtypes raising hopes for more personalized treatment. Two main molecular subtypes of LCNEC have been identified by studies using next generation sequencing, namely type I with TP53 and STK11/KEAP1 alterations, alternatively called as non-SCLC type, and type II with TP53 and RB1 alterations, alternatively called as SCLC type. However, there is still no easy way to classify LCNEC subtypes at the actual clinical level. In this review, we have discussed histological diagnosis along with the genomic studies and molecular-based treatment for LCNEC.

Large Cell Neuro-Endocrine Carcinoma of the Lung: Current Treatment Options and Potential Future Opportunities

Large-cell neuroendocrine carcinomas of the lung (LCNECs) are rare tumors representing 1-3% of all primary lung cancers. Patients with LCNEC are predominantly male, older, and heavy smokers. Histologically, these tumors are characterized by large cells with abundant cytoplasm, high mitotic rate, and neuroendocrine immunohistochemistry-detected markers (chromogranin-A, synaptophysin, and CD56). In 2015 the World Health Organization classified LCNEC as a distinct subtype of pulmonary large-cell carcinoma and, therefore, as a subtype of non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). Because of the small-sized tissue samples and the likeness to other neuroendocrine tumors, the histological diagnosis of LCNEC remains difficult. Clinically, the prognosis of metastatic LCNECs is poor, with high rates of recurrence after surgery alone and overall survival of approximately 35% at 5 years, even for patients with early stage disease that is dramatically shorter compared with other NSCLC subtypes. First-line treatment options have been largely discussed but with limited data based on phase II studies with small sample sizes, and there are no second-line well defined treatments. To date, no standard treatment regimen has been developed, and how to treat LCNEC is still on debate. In the immunotherapy and targeted therapy era, in which NSCLC treatment strategies have been radically reshaped, a few data are available regarding these opportunities in LCNEC. Due to lack of knowledge in this field, many efforts have been done for a deeper understanding of the biological and molecular characteristics of LCNEC. Next generation sequencing analyses have identified subtypes of LCNEC that may be relevant for prognosis and response to therapy, but further studies are needed to better define the clinical impact of these results. Moreover, scarce data exist about PD-L1 expression in LCNEC and its predictive value in this histotype with regard to immunotherapy efficacy. In the literature some cases are reported concerning LCNEC metastatic patients carrying driver mutations, especially EGFR alterations, showing targeted therapy efficacy in this setting of disease. Due to the rarity and the challenging understanding of LCNEC, in this review we aim to summarize the management options currently available for treatment of LCNEC.

Genomics of High-Grade Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: Well-Differentiated Neuroendocrine Tumor with High-Grade Features (G3 NET) and Neuroendocrine Carcinomas (NEC) of Various Anatomic Sites

High-grade neuroendocrine neoplasms (HG-NENs) are clinically aggressive diseases, the classification of which has recently been redefined. They now include both poorly differentiated NENs (neuroendocrine carcinoma, NECs) and high proliferating well-differentiated NENs (called grade 3 neuroendocrine tumors, G3 NETs, in the digestive system). In the last decade, the "molecular revolution" that has affected all fields of medical oncology has also shed light in the understanding of HG NENs heterogeneity and has provided new diagnostic and therapeutic tools, useful in the management of these malignancies. Considering the kaleidoscopic aspects of HG NENs in various anatomical sites, this review systematically addresses the genomic landscape of such neoplasm throughout the more common thoracic and digestive locations, as well as it will consider other rare but not exceptional primary sites, including the skin, the head and neck, and the urogenital system. The revision of the available literature will then be oriented to understand the translational relevance of molecular data, by analyzing conceptual issues, clinicopathological correlations, and unmet needs in this field.