Loss and recovery of sound-evoked otoacoustic emissions in young chicks following acoustic trauma

Hair cell force generation does not amplify or tune vibrations within the chicken basilar papilla

Frequency tuning within the auditory papilla of most non-mammalian species is electrical, deriving from ion-channel resonance within their sensory hair cells. In contrast, tuning within the mammalian cochlea is mechanical, stemming from active mechanisms within outer hair cells that amplify the basilar membrane travelling wave. Interestingly, hair cells in the avian basilar papilla demonstrate both electrical resonance and force-generation, making it unclear which mechanism creates sharp frequency tuning. Here, we measured sound-induced vibrations within the apical half of the chicken basilar papilla in vivo and found broadly-tuned travelling waves that were not amplified. However, distortion products were found in live but not dead chickens. These findings support the idea that avian hair cells do produce force, but that their effects on vibration are small and do not sharpen tuning. Therefore, frequency tuning within the apical avian basilar papilla is not mechanical, and likely derives from hair cell electrical resonance.

The avian auditory papilla has many similarities to the mammalian cochlea but whether force generation by hair cells amplifies the travelling wave, as it does in mammals, remains unknown. Here the authors show that the chicken basilar papilla does not have a ‘cochlear amplifier' and that sharp frequency tuning does not derive from mechanical vibrations.

Effect of prenatal loud music and noise on total number of neurons and glia, neuronal nuclear area and volume of chick brainstem auditory nuclei, field L and hippocampus: a stereological investigation

The present study explores whether prenatal patterned and unpatterned sound of high sound pressure level (110 dB) has any differential effect on the morphology of brainstem auditory nuclei, field L (auditory cortex analog) and hippocampus in chicks (Gallus domesticus). The total number of neurons and glia, mean neuronal nuclear area and total volume of the brainstem auditory nuclei, field L and hippocampus of post-hatch day 1 chicks were determined in serial, cresyl violet-stained sections, using stereology software. All regions studied showed a significantly increased total volume with increase in total neuron number and mean neuronal nuclear area in the patterned music stimulated group as compared to control. Contrastingly the unpatterned noise stimulated group showed an attenuated volume with reduction in the total neuron number. The mean neuronal nuclear area was significantly reduced in the auditory nuclei and hippocampus but increased in the field L. Glial cell number was significantly increased in both experimental groups, being highest in the noise group. The brainstem auditory nuclei and field L showed an increase in glia to neuron ratio in the experimental groups as compared to control. In the hippocampus the ratio remained unaltered between control and music groups, but was higher in the noise group. It is thus evident that though the sound pressure level in both experimental groups was the same there were differential changes in the morphological parameters of the brain regions studied, indicating that the characteristics of the sound had a role in mediating these effects.

Otoacoustic emissions in humans, birds, lizards, and frogs: evidence for multiple generation mechanisms

Many non-mammalian ears lack physiological features considered integral to the generation of otoacoustic emissions in mammals, including basilar-membrane traveling waves and hair-cell somatic motility. To help elucidate the mechanisms of emission generation, this study systematically measured and compared evoked emissions in all four classes of tetrapod vertebrates using identical stimulus paradigms. Overall emission levels are largest in the lizard and frog species studied and smallest in the chicken. Emission levels in humans, the only examined species with somatic hair cell motility, were intermediate. Both geckos and frogs exhibit substantially higher levels of high-order intermodulation distortion. Stimulus frequency emission phase-gradient delays are longest in humans but are at least 1 ms in all species. Comparisons between stimulus-frequency emission and distortion-product emission phase gradients for low stimulus levels indicate that representatives from all classes except frog show evidence for two distinct generation mechanisms analogous to the reflection- and distortion-source (i.e., place- and wave-fixed) mechanisms evident in mammals. Despite morphological differences, the results suggest the role of a scaling-symmetric traveling wave in chicken emission generation, similar to that in mammals, and perhaps some analog in the gecko.