Modulation of basal and peptide hormone-stimulated Na transport by membrane cholesterol content in the A6 epithelial cell line

Lovastatin attenuates hypertension induced by renal tubule-specific knockout of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1, by inhibiting epithelial sodium channels

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

We have shown that cholesterol is synthesized in the principal cells of renal cortical collecting ducts (CCD) and stimulates the epithelial sodium channels (ENaC). Here we have determined whether lovastatin, a cholesterol synthesis inhibitor, can antagonize the hypertension induced by activated ENaC, following deletion of the cholesterol transporter (ATP-binding cassette transporter A1; ABCA1).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

We selectively deleted ABCA1 in the principal cells of mouse CCD and used the cell-attached patch-clamp technique to record ENaC activity. Western blot and immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate protein expression levels. Systolic BP was measured with the tail-cuff method.

KEY RESULTS

Specific deletion of ABCA1 elevated BP and ENaC single-channel activity in the principal cells of CCD in mice. These effects were antagonized by lovastatin. ABCA1 deletion elevated intracellular cholesterol levels, which was accompanied by elevated ROS, increased expression of serum/glucocorticoid regulated kinase 1 (Sgk1), phosphorylated neural precursor cell-expressed developmentally down-regulated protein 4-2 (Nedd4-2) and furin, along with shorten the primary cilium, and reduced ATP levels in urine.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These data suggest that specific deletion of ABCA1 in principal cells increases BP by stimulating ENaC channels via a cholesterol-dependent pathway which induces several secondary responses associated with oxidative stress, activated Sgk1/Nedd4-2, increased furin expression, and reduced cilium-mediated release of ATP. As ABCA1 can be blocked by cyclosporine A, these results suggest further investigation of the possible use of statins to treat CsA-induced hypertension.

Cellular cholesterol modifies flow-mediated gene expression

Downregulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2), and nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS2) in the kidneys of Dahl rodents causes salt sensitivity, while restoring their expression aids in Na⁺ excretion and blood pressure reduction. Loading cholesterol into collecting duct (CD) cells represses fluid shear stress (FSS)-mediated COX2 activity. Thus, we hypothesized that cholesterol represses flow-responsive genes necessary to effectuate Na⁺ excretion. To this end, CD cells were used to test whether FSS induces these genes and if cholesterol loading represses them. Mice fed either 0% or 1% cholesterol diet were injected with saline, urine volume and electrolytes were measured, and renal gene expression determined. FSS-exposed CD cells demonstrated increases in HO-1 mRNA by 350-fold, COX2 by 25-fold, and NOS2 by 8-fold in sheared cells compared with static cells (P < 0.01). Immunoblot analysis of sheared cells showed increases in HO-1, COX2, and NOS2 protein, whereas conditioned media contained more HO-1 and PGE₂ than static cells. Cholesterol loading repressed the sheared mediated protein abundance of HO-1 and NOS2 as well as HO-1 and PGE₂ concentrations in media. In cholesterol-fed mice, urine volume was less at 6 h after injection of isotonic saline (P < 0.05). Urinary Na⁺ concentration, urinary K⁺ concentration, and osmolality were greater, whereas Na⁺ excretion was less, at the 6-h urine collection time point in cholesterol-fed versus control mice (P < 0.05). Renal cortical and medullary HO-1 (P < 0.05) and NOS2 (P < 0.05) mRNA were repressed in cholesterol-fed compared with control mice. Cholesterol acts to repress flow induced natriuretic gene expression, and this effect, in vivo, may contribute to renal Na⁺ avidity.

Intracellular cholesterol stimulates ENaC by interacting with phosphatidylinositol‑4,5‑bisphosphate and mediates cyclosporine A-induced hypertension

We have previously shown that blockade of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) with cyclosporine A (CsA) stimulates the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in cultured distal nephron cells. Here we show that CsA elevated systolic blood pressure in both wild-type and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout (KO) mice to a similar level. The elevated systolic blood pressure was completely reversed by inhibition of cholesterol (Cho) synthesis with lovastatin. Inside-out patch-clamp data show that intracellular Cho stimulated ENaC in cultured distal nephron cells by interacting with phosphatidylinositol‑4,5‑bisphosphate (PIP2), an ENaC activator. Confocal microscopy data show that both α‑ENaC and PIP2 were localized in microvilli via a Cho-dependent mechanism. Deletion of membrane Cho reduced the levels of γ‑ENaC in the apical membrane. Reduced ABCA1 expression and elevated intracellular Cho were observed in old mice, compared to young mice. In parallel, cell-attached patch-clamp data from the split-open cortical collecting ducts (CCD) show that ENaC activity was significantly increased in old mice. These data suggest that elevation of intracellular Cho due to blockade of ABCA1 stimulates ENaC, which may contribute to CsA-induced hypertension. This study also implies that reduced ABCA1 expression may mediate age-related hypertension by increasing ENaC activity via elevation of intracellular Cho.

Activation of the Human Epithelial Sodium Channel (ENaC) by Bile Acids Involves the Degenerin Site

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is a member of the ENaC/degenerin ion channel family, which also includes the bile acid-sensitive ion channel (BASIC). So far little is known about the effects of bile acids on ENaC function. ENaC is probably a heterotrimer consisting of three well characterized subunits (αβγ). In humans, but not in mice and rats, an additional δ-subunit exists. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of chenodeoxycholic, cholic, and deoxycholic acid in unconjugated (CDCA, CA, and DCA) and tauro-conjugated (t-CDCA, t-CA, t-DCA) form on human ENaC in its αβγ- and δβγ-configuration. We demonstrated that tauro-conjugated bile acids significantly stimulate ENaC in the αβγ- and in the δβγ-configuration. In contrast, non-conjugated bile acids have a robust stimulatory effect only on δβγENaC. Bile acids stimulate ENaC-mediated currents by increasing the open probability of active channels without recruiting additional near-silent channels known to be activated by proteases. Stimulation of ENaC activity by bile acids is accompanied by a significant reduction of the single-channel current amplitude, indicating an interaction of bile acids with a region close to the channel pore. Analysis of the known ASIC1 (acid-sensing ion channel) crystal structure suggested that bile acids may bind to the pore region at the degenerin site of ENaC. Substitution of a single amino acid residue within the degenerin region of βENaC (N521C or N521A) significantly reduced the stimulatory effect of bile acids on ENaC, suggesting that this site is critical for the functional interaction of bile acids with the channel.

Distinct action of flavonoids, myricetin and quercetin, on epithelial Cl⁻ secretion: useful tools as regulators of Cl⁻ secretion

Epithelial Cl⁻ secretion plays important roles in water secretion preventing bacterial/viral infection and regulation of body fluid. We previously suggested that quercetin would be a useful compound for maintaining epithelial Cl⁻ secretion at a moderate level irrespective of cAMP-induced stimulation. However, we need a compound that stimulates epithelial Cl⁻ secretion even under cAMP-stimulated conditions, since in some cases epithelial Cl⁻ secretion is not large enough even under cAMP-stimulated conditions. We demonstrated that quercetin and myricetin, flavonoids, stimulated epithelial Cl⁻ secretion under basal conditions in epithelial A6 cells. We used forskolin, which activates adenylyl cyclase increasing cytosolic cAMP concentrations, to study the effects of quercetin and myricetin on cAMP-stimulated epithelial Cl⁻ secretion. In the presence of forskolin, quercetin diminished epithelial Cl⁻ secretion to a level similar to that with quercetin alone without forskolin. Conversely, myricetin further stimulated epithelial Cl⁻ secretion even under forskolin-stimulated conditions. This suggests that the action of myricetin is via a cAMP-independent pathway. Therefore, myricetin may be a potentially useful compound to increase epithelial Cl⁻ secretion under cAMP-stimulated conditions. In conclusion, myricetin would be a useful compound for prevention from bacterial/viral infection even under conditions that the amount of water secretion driven by cAMP-stimulated epithelial Cl⁻ secretion is insufficient.

Cholesterol tuning of BK ethanol response is enantioselective, and is a function of accompanying lipids

In the search to uncover ethanol's molecular mechanisms, the calcium and voltage activated, large conductance potassium channel (BK) has emerged as an important molecule. We examine how cholesterol content in bilayers of 1,2-dioleoyl-3-phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE)/sphingomyelin (SPM) and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylethanolamine (POPE)/1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylserine (POPS) affect the function and ethanol sensitivity of BK. In addition, we examine how manipulation of cholesterol in biological membranes modulates ethanol's actions on BK. We report that cholesterol levels regulate the change in BK channel open probability elicited by 50 mM ethanol. Low levels of cholesterol (<20%, molar ratio) supports ethanol activation, while high levels of cholesterol leads to ethanol inhibition of BK. To determine if cholesterol affects BK and its sensitivity to ethanol through a direct cholesterol-protein interaction or via an indirect action on the lipid bilayer, we used the synthetic enantiomer of cholesterol (ent-CHS). We found that 20% and 40% ent-CHS had little effect on the ethanol sensitivity of BK, when compared with the same concentration of nat-CHS. We accessed the effects of ent-CHS and nat-CHS on the molecular organization of DOPE/SPM monolayers at the air/water interface. The isotherm data showed that ent-CHS condensed DOPE/SPM monolayer equivalently to nat-CHS at a 20% concentration, but slightly less at a 40% concentration. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of DOPE/SPM membranes in the presence of ent-CHS or nat-CHS prepared with LB technique or vesicle deposition showed no significant difference in topographies, supporting the interpretation that the differences in actions of nat-CHS and ent-CHS on BK channel are not likely from a generalized action on bilayers. We conclude that membrane cholesterol influences ethanol's modulation of BK in a complex manner, including an interaction with the channel protein. Finally, our results suggest that an understanding of membrane protein function and modulation is impossible unless protein and surrounding lipid are considered as a functional unit.

Acute cholesterol-induced anti-natriuretic effects: role of epithelial Na+ channel activity, protein levels, and processing

The epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) is modulated by membrane lipid composition. However, the effect of an in vivo change of membrane composition is unknown. We examined the effect of a 70-day enhanced cholesterol diet (ECD) on ENaC and renal Na(+) handling. Rats were fed a standard chow or one supplemented with 1% cholesterol and 0.5% cholic acid (ECD). ECD animals exhibited marked anti-diuresis and anti-natriuresis (40 and 47%), which peaked at 1-3 weeks. Secondary compensation returned urine output and urinary Na(+) excretion to control levels by week 10. During these initial changes, there were no accompanying effects on systolic blood pressure, serum creatinine, or urinary creatinine excretion, indicating that the these effects of ECD preceded those which modify renal filtration and blood pressure. The effects of ECD on ENaC were evaluated by measuring the relative protein content of α, β, and γ subunits. α and γ blots were further examined for subunit cleavage (a process that activates ENaC). No significant changes were observed in α and β levels throughout the study. However, levels of cleaved γ were elevated, suggesting that ENaC was activated. The changes of γ persisted at week 10 and were accompanied by additional subunit fragments, indicating potential changes of γ-cleaving proteases. Enhanced protease activity, and specifically that which could act on the second identified cleavage site in γ, was verified in a newly developed urinary protease assay. These results predict enhanced ENaC activity, an effect that was confirmed in patch clamp experiments of principal cells of split open collecting ducts, where ENaC open probability was increased by 40% in the ECD group. These data demonstrate a complex series of events and a new regulatory paradigm that is initiated by ECD prior to the onset of elevated blood pressure. These events lead to changes of renal Na(+) handling, which occur in part by effects on extracellular γ-ENaC cleavage.

Regulation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) by membrane trafficking

The epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) is a major regulator of salt and water reabsorption in a number of epithelial tissues. Abnormalities in ENaC function have been directly linked to several human disease states including Liddle syndrome, psuedohypoaldosteronism, and cystic fibrosis and may be implicated in salt-sensitive hypertension. ENaC activity in epithelial cells is regulated both by open probability and channel number. This review focuses on the regulation of ENaC in the cells of the kidney cortical collecting duct by trafficking and recycling. The trafficking of ENaC is discussed in the broader context of epithelial cell vesicle trafficking. Well-characterized pathways and protein interactions elucidated using epithelial model cells are discussed, and the known overlap with ENaC regulation is highlighted. In following the life of ENaC in CCD epithelial cells the apical delivery, internalization, recycling, and destruction of the channel will be discussed. While a number of pathways presented still need to be linked to ENaC regulation and many details of the regulation of ENaC trafficking remain to be elucidated, knowledge of these mechanisms may provide further insights into ENaC activity in normal and disease states.

Cholesterol and ion channels

A variety of ion channels, including members of all major ion channel families, have been shown to be regulated by changes in the level of membrane cholesterol and partition into cholesterol-rich membrane domains. In general, several types of cholesterol effects have been described. The most common effect is suppression of channel activity by an increase in membrane cholesterol, an effect that was described for several types of inwardly-rectifying K(+) channels, voltage-gated K(+) channels, Ca(+2) sensitive K(+) channels, voltage-gated Na(+) channels, N-type voltage-gated Ca(+2) channels and volume-regulated anion channels. In contrast, several types of ion channels, such as epithelial amiloride-sensitive Na(+) channels and Transient Receptor Potential channels, as well as some of the types of inwardly-rectifying and voltage-gated K(+) channels were shown to be inhibited by cholesterol depletion. Cholesterol was also shown to alter the kinetic properties and current-voltage dependence of several voltage-gated channels. Finally, maintaining membrane cholesterol level is required for coupling ion channels to signalling cascades. In terms of the mechanisms, three general mechanisms have been proposed: (i) specific interactions between cholesterol and the channel protein, (ii) changes in the physical properties of the membrane bilayer and (iii) maintaining the scaffolds for protein-protein interactions. The goal of this review is to describe systematically the role of cholesterol in regulation of the major types of ion channels and to discuss these effects in the context of the models proposed.

Cholesterol induces renal vasoconstriction and anti-natriuresis by inhibiting nitric oxide production in anesthetized rats

Although hypercholesterolemia is implicated in the pathophysiology of many renal disorders as well as hypertension, its direct actions in the kidney are not yet clearly understood. In the present study, we evaluated renal responses to administration of cholesterol (8 microg x min(-1).100 g body wt(-1); bound by polyethylene glycol) into the renal artery of anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats. Total renal blood flow (RBF) was measured by a Transonic flow probe, and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was determined by Inulin clearance. In control rats (n = 8), cholesterol induced reductions of 10 +/- 2% in RBF [baseline (b) 7.6 +/- 0.3 microg x min(-1).100 g(-1)], 17 +/- 3% in urine flow (b, 10.6 +/- 0.9 microg x min(-1).100 g(-1)), 29 +/- 3% in sodium excretion (b, 0.96 +/- 0.05 mumol.min(-1).100 g(-1)) and 24 +/- 2% in nitrite/nitrate excretion (b, 0.22 +/- 0.01 nmol.min(-1).100 g(-1)) without an appreciable change in GFR (b, 0.87 +/- 0.03 ml.min(-1).100 g(-1)). These renal vasoconstrictor and anti-natriuretic responses to cholesterol were absent in rats pretreated with nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor, nitro-l-arginine methylester (0.5 microg x min(-1).100 g(-1); n = 6). In rats pretreated with superoxide (O(2)(-)) scavenger tempol (50 microg x min(-1).100 g(-1); n = 6), the cholesterol-induced renal responses remained mostly unchanged, although there was a slight attenuation in anti-natriuretic response. This anti-natriuretic response to cholesterol was abolished in furosemide-pretreated rats (0.3 microg x min(-1).100 g(-1); n = 6) but remained unchanged in amiloride-pretreated rats (0.2 microg x min(-1).100 g(-1); n = 5), indicating that Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransport is the dominant mediator of this effect. These data demonstrate that cholesterol-induced acute renal vasoconstrictor and antinatriuretic responses are mediated by a decrease in NO production. These data also indicate that tubular effect of cholesterol on sodium reabsorption is mediated by the furosemide sensitive Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransporter.

Identification of a C-terminus domain critical for the sensitivity of Kir2.1 to cholesterol

A variety of ion channels are regulated by cholesterol, a major lipid component of the plasma membrane whose excess is associated with multiple pathological conditions. However, the mechanism underlying cholesterol sensitivity of ion channels is unknown. We have recently shown that an increase in membrane cholesterol suppresses inwardly rectifying K(+) (Kir2) channels that are responsible for maintaining membrane potential in a variety of cell types. Here we show that cholesterol sensitivity of Kir2 channels depends on a specific region of the C terminus of the cytosolic domain of the channel, the CD loop. Within this loop, the L222I mutation in Kir2.1 abrogates the sensitivity of the channel to cholesterol whereas a reverse mutation in the corresponding position in Kir2.3, I214L, has the opposite effect, increasing cholesterol sensitivity. Furthermore, the L222I mutation has a dominant negative effect on cholesterol sensitivity of Kir2.1 WT. Mutations of 2 additional residues in the CD loop in Kir2.1, N216D and K219Q, partially affect the sensitivity of the channel to cholesterol. Yet, whereas these mutations have been shown to affect activation of the channel by the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P(2)], other mutations outside the CD loop that have been previously shown to affect activation of the channel by PI(4,5)P(2) had no effect on cholesterol sensitivity. Mutations of the lipid-facing residues of the outer transmembrane helix also had no effect. These findings provide insights into the structural determinants of the sensitivity of Kir2 channels to cholesterol, and introduce the critical role of the cytosolic domain in cholesterol dependent channel regulation.

The activity of the epithelial sodium channels is regulated by caveolin-1 via a Nedd4-2-dependent mechanism

It has recently been shown that the epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) is compartmentalized in caveolin-rich lipid rafts and that pharmacological depletion of membrane cholesterol, which disrupts lipid raft formation, decreases the activity of ENaC. Here we show, for the first time, that a signature protein of caveolae, caveolin-1 (Cav-1), down-regulates the activity and membrane surface expression of ENaC. Physical interaction between ENaC and Cav-1 was also confirmed in a coimmunoprecipitation assay. We found that the effect of Cav-1 on ENaC requires the activity of Nedd4-2, a ubiquitin protein ligase of the Nedd4 family, which is known to induce ubiquitination and internalization of ENaC. The effect of Cav-1 on ENaC requires the proline-rich motifs at the C termini of the beta- and gamma-subunits of ENaC, the binding motifs that mediate interaction with Nedd4-2. Taken together, our data suggest that Cav-1 inhibits the activity of ENaC by decreasing expression of ENaC at the cell membrane via a mechanism that involves the promotion of Nedd4-2-dependent internalization of the channel.

Regulated sodium transport in the renal connecting tubule (CNT) via the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC)

The aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron (ASDN) includes the late distal convoluted tubule 2, the connecting tubule (CNT) and the collecting duct. The appropriate regulation of sodium (Na(+)) absorption in the ASDN is essential to precisely match urinary Na(+) excretion to dietary Na(+) intake whilst taking extra-renal Na(+) losses into account. There is increasing evidence that Na(+) transport in the CNT is of particular importance for the maintenance of body Na(+) balance and for the long-term control of extra-cellular fluid volume and arterial blood pressure. Na(+) transport in the CNT critically depends on the activity and abundance of the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in the luminal membrane of the CNT cells. As a rate-limiting step for transepithelial Na(+) transport, ENaC is the main target of hormones (e.g. aldosterone, angiotensin II, vasopressin and insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1) to adjust transepithelial Na(+) transport in this tubular segment. In this review, we highlight the structural and functional properties of the CNT that contribute to the high Na(+) transport capacity of this segment. Moreover, we discuss some aspects of the complex pathways and molecular mechanisms involved in ENaC regulation by hormones, kinases, proteases and associated proteins that control its function. Whilst cultured cells and heterologous expression systems have greatly advanced our knowledge about some of these regulatory mechanisms, future studies will have to determine the relative importance of the various pathways in the native tubule and in particular in the CNT.

Cyclosporine stimulates the renal epithelial sodium channel by elevating cholesterol

Cyclosporine A (CsA) is an efficient immunosuppressant used for reducing allograft rejection but with a severe side effect of causing hypertension. We hypothesize that the renal epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) may participate in CsA-induced hypertension. In the present study, we used the patch-clamp cell-attached configuration to examine whether and how CsA stimulates ENaC in A6 distal nephron cells. The data showed that CsA significantly increased ENaC open probability. Since CsA is an inhibitor of the ATP-binding cassette A1 (ABCA1) transporter, we employed 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), another ABCA1 inhibitor, and found that DIDS mimicked the effects of CsA on ENaC basal and cholesterol-induced activity but without any additive effect if combined with CsA. CsA and DIDS also had an identical effect on reduced ENaC activity caused by cholesterol extraction. ABCA1 protein was detected in A6 cells by Western blot analysis. Confocal microscopy data showed that both CsA and DIDS facilitated A6 cells to uptake cholesterol. Since enhanced ENaC activity is known to cause hypertension, these data together suggest that CsA may cause hypertension by stimulating ENaC through a pathway associated with inhibition of ABCA1 and consequent elevation of cholesterol in the cells.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) traffics to apical membrane in lipid rafts in mouse cortical collecting duct cells

We previously showed that ENaC is present in lipid rafts in A6 cells, a Xenopus kidney cell line. We now demonstrate that ENaC can be detected in lipid rafts in mouse cortical collecting duct ((MPK)CCD(14)) cells by detergent insolubility, buoyancy on density gradients using two distinct approaches, and colocalization with caveolin 1. Less than 30% of ENaC subunits were found in raft fractions. The channel subunits also colocalized on sucrose gradients with known vesicle targeting and fusion proteins syntaxin 1A, Vamp 2, and SNAP23. Hormonal stimulation of ENaC activity by either forskolin or aldosterone, short or long term, did not alter the lipid raft distribution of ENaC. Methyl-beta-cyclodextrin added apically to (MPK)CCD(14) cells resulted in a slow decline in amiloride-sensitive sodium transport with short circuit current reductions of 38.1 +/- 9.6% after 60 min. The slow decline in ENaC activity in response to apical cyclodextrin was identical to the rate of decline seen when protein synthesis was inhibited by cycloheximide. Apical biotinylation of (MPK)CCD(14) cells confirmed the loss of ENaC at the cell surface following cyclodextrin treatment. Acute stimulation of the recycling pool of ENaC was unaffected by apical cyclodextrin application. Expression of dominant negative caveolin isoforms (CAV1-eGFP and CAV3-DGV) which disrupt caveolae, reduced basal ENaC currents by 72.3 and 78.2%, respectively; but, as with cyclodextrin, the acute response to forskolin was unaffected. We conclude that ENaC is present in and regulated by lipid rafts. The data are consistent with a model in which rafts mediate the constitutive apical delivery of ENaC.

Relationship between Kir2.1/Kir2.3 activity and their distributions between cholesterol-rich and cholesterol-poor membrane domains

Our earlier studies have shown that Kir2.x channels are suppressed by an increase in the level of cellular cholesterol, whereas cholesterol depletion enhances the activity of the channels. In this study, we show that Kir2.1 and Kir2.3 channels have double-peak distributions between cholesterol-rich (raft) and cholesterol-poor (non-raft) membrane fractions, indicating that the channels exist in two different types of lipid environment. We also show that whereas methyl-beta-cyclodextrin-induced cholesterol depletion removes cholesterol from both raft and non-raft membrane fractions, cholesterol enrichment results in cholesterol increase exclusively in the raft fractions. Kinetics of both depletion-induced Kir2.1 enhancement and enrichment-induced Kir2.1 suppression correlate with the changes in the level of raft cholesterol. Furthermore, we show not only that cholesterol depletion shifts the distribution of the channels from cholesterol-rich to cholesterol-poor membrane fractions but also that cholesterol enrichment has the opposite effect. These observations suggest that change in the level of raft cholesterol alone is sufficient to suppress Kir2 activity and to facilitate partitioning of the channels to cholesterol-rich domains. Therefore, we suggest that partitioning to membrane rafts plays an important role in the sensitivity of Kir2 channels to cholesterol.