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Rigo A, Vaisitti T, Laudanna C, Terrabuio E, Micillo M, Frusteri C, D'Ulivo B, Merigo F, Sbarbati A, Mellert K, Möeller P, Montresor A, Di Napoli A, Cirombella R, Butturini E, Massaia M, Constantin G, Vinante F, Deaglio S, Ferrarini I. Decreased apoptotic priming and loss of BCL-2 dependence are functional hallmarks of Richter's syndrome. Cell Death Dis 2024; 15:323. [PMID: 38724507 PMCID: PMC11082225 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-024-06707-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Richter's syndrome (RS) is the transformation of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) into a high-grade B-cell malignancy. Molecular and functional studies have pointed out that CLL cells are close to the apoptotic threshold and dependent on BCL-2 for survival. However, it remains undefined how evasion from apoptosis evolves during disease transformation. Here, we employed functional and static approaches to compare the regulation of mitochondrial apoptosis in CLL and RS. BH3 profiling of 17 CLL and 9 RS samples demonstrated that RS cells had reduced apoptotic priming and lower BCL-2 dependence than CLL cells. While a subset of RS was dependent on alternative anti-apoptotic proteins and was sensitive to specific BH3 mimetics, other RS cases harbored no specific anti-apoptotic addiction. Transcriptomics of paired CLL/RS samples revealed downregulation of pro-apoptotic sensitizers during disease transformation. Albeit expressed, effector and activator members were less likely to colocalize with mitochondria in RS compared to CLL. Electron microscopy highlighted reduced cristae width in RS mitochondria, a condition further promoting apoptosis resistance. Collectively, our data suggest that RS cells evolve multiple mechanisms that lower the apoptotic priming and shift the anti-apoptotic dependencies away from BCL-2, making direct targeting of mitochondrial apoptosis more challenging after disease transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Rigo
- Cancer Research & Cell Biology Laboratory, Section of Innovation Biomedicine, Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Tiziana Vaisitti
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Carlo Laudanna
- Section of General Pathology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Eleonora Terrabuio
- Section of General Pathology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Matilde Micillo
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Cristina Frusteri
- Cancer Research & Cell Biology Laboratory, Section of Innovation Biomedicine, Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Beatrice D'Ulivo
- Section of General Pathology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Flavia Merigo
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Andrea Sbarbati
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Kevin Mellert
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Peter Möeller
- Institute of Pathology, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Alessio Montresor
- Section of General Pathology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Arianna Di Napoli
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University, Sant'Andrea University Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberto Cirombella
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University, Sant'Andrea University Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Butturini
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Biological Chemistry Section, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Gabriela Constantin
- Section of General Pathology, Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Vinante
- Cancer Research & Cell Biology Laboratory, Section of Innovation Biomedicine, Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Silvia Deaglio
- Laboratory of Functional Genomics, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Isacco Ferrarini
- Cancer Research & Cell Biology Laboratory, Section of Innovation Biomedicine, Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
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Irfan M, Javed Z, Khan K, Khan N, Docea AO, Calina D, Sharifi-Rad J, Cho WC. Apoptosis evasion via long non-coding RNAs in colorectal cancer. Cancer Cell Int 2022; 22:280. [PMID: 36076273 PMCID: PMC9461221 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-022-02695-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Long non-coding RNA (LncRNA) is a novel and diverse class of regulatory transcripts that are frequently dysregulated in numerous tumor types. LncRNAs are involved in a complicated molecular network, regulating gene expression, and modulating diverse cellular activities in different cancers including colorectal cancer (CRC). Evidence indicates that lncRNAs can be used as a potential biomarker for the prognosis and diagnosis of CRC as they are aberrantly expressed in CRC cells. The high expression or silencing of lncRNAs is associated with cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, chemoresistance and apoptosis in CRC. LncRNAs exert both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic functions in CRC. The expression of some oncogene lncRNAs is upregulated which leads to the inhibition of apoptotic pathways, similarly, the tumor suppressor lncRNAs are downregulated in CRC. In this review, we describe the function and mechanisms of lncRNAs to regulate the expression of genes that are involved directly or indirectly in controlling cellular apoptosis in CRC. Furthermore, we also discussed the different apoptotic pathways in normal cells and the mechanisms by which CRC evade apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Irfan
- Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Zeeshan Javed
- Office for Research Innovation and Commercialization, Lahore Garrison University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Khushbukhat Khan
- Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Naila Khan
- Atta-Ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Anca Oana Docea
- Department of Toxicology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349, Craiova, Romania
| | - Daniela Calina
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349, Craiova, Romania.
| | | | - William C Cho
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
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Ozyerli-Goknar E, Bagci-Onder T. Epigenetic Deregulation of Apoptosis in Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3210. [PMID: 34199020 PMCID: PMC8267644 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13133210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer cells possess the ability to evade apoptosis. Genetic alterations through mutations in key genes of the apoptotic signaling pathway represent a major adaptive mechanism of apoptosis evasion. In parallel, epigenetic changes via aberrant modifications of DNA and histones to regulate the expression of pro- and antiapoptotic signal mediators represent a major complementary mechanism in apoptosis regulation and therapy response. Most epigenetic changes are governed by the activity of chromatin modifying enzymes that add, remove, or recognize different marks on histones and DNA. Here, we discuss how apoptosis signaling components are deregulated at epigenetic levels, particularly focusing on the roles of chromatin-modifying enzymes in this process. We also review the advances in cancer therapies with epigenetic drugs such as DNMT, HMT, HDAC, and BET inhibitors, as well as their effects on apoptosis modulation in cancer cells. Rewiring the epigenome by drug interventions can provide therapeutic advantage for various cancers by reverting therapy resistance and leading cancer cells to undergo apoptotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezgi Ozyerli-Goknar
- Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul 34450, Turkey;
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Tugba Bagci-Onder
- Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul 34450, Turkey;
- Research Center for Translational Medicine, Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
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Soozangar N, Sadeghi MR, Jeddi F, Samadi N, Hejazi MS, Azad M, Shirmohamadi M, Somi MH. Decreased expression of the Keap1 gene and its clinicopathological significance in gastric cancer: correlation with promoter DNA methylation. GAZZETTA MEDICA ITALIANA ARCHIVIO PER LE SCIENZE MEDICHE 2019. [DOI: 10.23736/s0393-3660.18.03799-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Kaya-Aksoy E, Cingoz A, Senbabaoglu F, Seker F, Sur-Erdem I, Kayabolen A, Lokumcu T, Sahin GN, Karahuseyinoglu S, Bagci-Onder T. The pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member Harakiri (HRK) induces cell death in glioblastoma multiforme. Cell Death Discov 2019; 5:64. [PMID: 30774992 PMCID: PMC6368544 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-019-0144-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Harakiri (HRK) is a BH3-only protein of the Bcl-2 family and regulates apoptosis by interfering with anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL proteins. While its function is mainly characterized in the nervous system, its role in tumors is ill-defined with few studies demonstrating HRK silencing in tumors. In this study, we investigated the role of HRK in the most aggressive primary brain tumor, glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). We showed that HRK is differentially expressed among established GBM cell lines and that HRK overexpression can induce apoptosis in GBM cells at different levels. This phenotype can be blocked by forced expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, suggesting the functional interaction of Bcl-2/Bcl-xL and HRK in tumor cells. Moreover, HRK overexpression cooperates with tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), a known tumor-specific pro-apoptotic agent. Besides, secondary agents that augment TRAIL response, such as the histone deacetylase inhibitor MS-275, significantly increases HRK expression. In addition, GBM cell response to TRAIL and MS-275 can be partly abolished by HRK silencing. Finally, we showed that HRK induction suppresses tumor growth in orthotopic GBM models in vivo, leading to increased survival. Taken together, our results suggest that HRK expression is associated with GBM cell apoptosis and increasing HRK activity in GBM tumors might offer new therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezgi Kaya-Aksoy
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Cingoz
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Filiz Senbabaoglu
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Fidan Seker
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ilknur Sur-Erdem
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Alisan Kayabolen
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tolga Lokumcu
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gizem Nur Sahin
- 2Department of Histology and Embryology, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sercin Karahuseyinoglu
- 2Department of Histology and Embryology, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tugba Bagci-Onder
- 1Brain Cancer Research and Therapy Laboratory, Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
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6
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DNA methylation and apoptosis resistance in cancer cells. Cells 2013; 2:545-73. [PMID: 24709797 PMCID: PMC3972670 DOI: 10.3390/cells2030545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2013] [Revised: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis is a cell death programme primordial to cellular homeostasis efficiency. This normal cell suicide program is the result of the activation of a cascade of events in response to death stimuli. Apoptosis occurs in normal cells to maintain a balance between cell proliferation and cell death. A deregulation of this balance due to modifications in the apoptosic pathway leads to different human diseases including cancers. Apoptosis resistance is one of the most important hallmarks of cancer and some new therapeutical strategies focus on inducing cell death in cancer cells. Nevertheless, cancer cells are resistant to treatment inducing cell death because of different mechanisms, such as DNA mutations in gene coding for pro-apoptotic proteins, increased expression of anti-apoptotic proteins and/or pro-survival signals, or pro-apoptic gene silencing mediated by DNA hypermethylation. In this context, aberrant DNA methylation patterns, hypermethylation and hypomethylation of gene coding for proteins implicated in apoptotic pathways are possible causes of cancer cell resistance. This review highlights the role of DNA methylation of apoptosis-related genes in cancer cell resistance.
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Chang I, Majid S, Saini S, Zaman MS, Yamamura S, Chiyomaru T, Shahryari V, Fukuhara S, Deng G, Dahiya R, Tanaka Y. Hrk mediates 2-methoxyestradiol-induced mitochondrial apoptotic signaling in prostate cancer cells. Mol Cancer Ther 2013; 12:1049-59. [PMID: 23580416 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-12-1187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers in males and ranks as the second most common cause of cancer-related deaths. 2-methoxyestradiol (2-ME), an endogenous estrogen metabolite, is a promising anticancer agent for various types of cancers. Although 2-ME has been shown to activate c-Jun-NH2-kinase (JNK) and mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic signaling pathways, the underlying mechanisms, including downstream effectors, remain unclear. Here, we report that the human Bcl-2 homology 3 (BH3)-only protein harakiri (Hrk) is a critical effector of 2-ME-induced JNK/mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. Hrk mRNA and protein are preferentially upregulated by 2-ME, and Hrk induction is dependent on the JNK activation of c-Jun. Hrk knockdown prevents 2-ME-mediated apoptosis by attenuating the decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, subsequent cytochrome c (cyt c) release, and caspase activation. Involvement of the proapoptotic protein Bak in this process suggested the possible interaction between Hrk and Bak. Thus, Hrk activation by 2-ME or its overexpression displaced Bak from the complex with antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL, whereas deletion of the Hrk BH3 domain abolished its interaction with Bcl-xL, reducing the proapoptotic function of Hrk. Finally, Hrk is also involved in the 2-ME-mediated reduction of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis through Bak activation in prostate cancer cells. Together, our findings suggest that induction of the BH3-only protein Hrk is a critical step in 2-ME activation of the JNK-induced apoptotic pathway, targeting mitochondria by liberating proapoptotic protein Bak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inik Chang
- Department of Urology, San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
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Synergistic silencing by promoter methylation and reduced AP-2α transactivation of the proapoptotic HRK gene confers apoptosis resistance and enhanced tumor growth. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 182:84-95. [PMID: 23159945 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2012] [Revised: 09/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The Harakiri (HRK) gene encodes an important proapoptotic mitochondrial protein of the Bcl-2 family. HRK is expressed in normal tissues but is decreased in many cancers such as melanoma, the mechanisms of which have not been fully elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that HRK is silenced by hypermethylation of a major proximal CpG island in the HRK promoter. Furthermore, we show that HRK is a novel target gene regulated by the transcription factor AP-2α, which interacts with an AP-2α binding site in the HRK promoter. Hypermethylation of the major proximal CpG island (which contains the AP-2α binding site within the most densely methylated -218- to -194-bp region) inhibited AP-2α binding and transcriptional activity. Artificial overexpression of AP-2α in melanoma cells up-regulated HRK transcription, which was further restored by treatment with DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-azacytidine. Artificial overexpression of HRK by recombinant adenovirus induced caspase-dependent apoptosis, inhibited melanoma cell growth in vitro, and markedly reduced in vivo melanoma growth in a nude mouse xenograft model. RNA interference by siHRK or siAP-2α reversed the above effects. We conclude that the synergistic effects of HRK promoter hypermethylation and loss of AP-2α transactivation lead to HRK gene silencing and confer resistance to apoptosis and enhanced tumor growth. These novel molecular lesions may provide the basis for new therapeutic approaches to treating AP-2α- and HRK-deficient cancers.
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Bag1-L is a phosphorylation-dependent coactivator of c-Jun during neuronal apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 2010; 30:3842-52. [PMID: 20516211 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01610-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In the nervous system, cell death by apoptosis plays a critical role during normal development and pathological neurodegeneration. Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are essential regulators of neuronal apoptosis. The AP-1 transcription factor c-Jun is phosphorylated at multiple sites within its transactivation domain by the JNKs, and c-Jun phosphorylation is required for JNK-induced neurotoxicity. While the importance of c-Jun as a mediator of apoptotic JNK signaling in neurons is firmly established, the molecular mechanism underlying the requirement for c-Jun N-terminal phosphorylation is enigmatic. Here we identify the multifunctional protein Bag1-L as a coactivator of phosphorylated c-Jun. Bag1-L preferentially interacts with N-terminally phosphorylated c-Jun, and Bag1-L greatly augments transcriptional activation by phosphorylated c-Jun. Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments revealed binding of Bag1-L to the promoters of proapoptotic AP-1 target genes, and overexpression of Bag1-L augmented cell death in primary neurons. Therefore, Bag1-L functions as a coactivator regulating neurotoxicity mediated by phosphorylated c-Jun.
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Richter J, Ammerpohl O, Martín-Subero JI, Montesinos-Rongen M, Bibikova M, Wickham-Garcia E, Wiestler OD, Deckert M, Siebert R. Array-based DNA methylation profiling of primary lymphomas of the central nervous system. BMC Cancer 2009; 9:455. [PMID: 20025734 PMCID: PMC2807878 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-9-455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although primary lymphomas of the central nervous system (PCNSL) and extracerebral diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) cannot be distinguished histologically, it is still a matter of debate whether PCNSL differ from systemic DLBCL with respect to their molecular features and pathogenesis. Analysis of the DNA methylation pattern might provide further data distinguishing these entities at a molecular level. Methods Using an array-based technology we have assessed the DNA methylation status of 1,505 individual CpG loci in five PCNSL and compared the results to DNA methylation profiles of 49 DLBCL and ten hematopoietic controls. Results We identified 194 genes differentially methylated between PCNSL and normal controls. Interestingly, Polycomb target genes and genes with promoters showing a high CpG content were significantly enriched in the group of genes hypermethylated in PCNSL. However, PCNSL and systemic DLBCL did not differ in their methylation pattern. Conclusions Based on the data presented here, PCNSL and DLBCL do not differ in their DNA methylation pattern. Thus, DNA methylation analysis does not support a separation of PCNSL and DLBCL into individual entities. However, PCNSL and DLBCL differ in their DNA methylation pattern from non- malignant controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Richter
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein Campus Kiel/Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Germany.
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Nakamura M, Shimada K, Konishi N. The role of HRK gene in human cancer. Oncogene 2009; 27 Suppl 1:S105-13. [DOI: 10.1038/onc.2009.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Abstract
Deregulation of Bcl2 family members is a frequent feature of human malignant diseases and causal for therapy resistance. A number of studies have recently shed light onto the role of pro- and anti-apoptotic Bcl2 family members in tumour-pathogenesis and in mediating the effects of classical as well as novel front-line anticancer agents, allowing the development of more efficient and more precisely targeted treatment regimens. Most excitingly, recent progress in our understanding of how Bcl2-like proteins maintain or perturb mitochondrial integrity has finally enabled the development of rational-design based anticancer therapies that directly target Bcl2 regulated events at the level of mitochondria. This review aims to give an overview on the most recent findings on the role of the Bcl2 family in tumour development in model systems of cancer, to relate these findings with observations made in human pathologies and drug-action.
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Kuroda J, Taniwaki M. Involvement of BH3-only proteins in hematologic malignancies. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2008; 71:89-101. [PMID: 19022681 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2008.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2008] [Revised: 09/18/2008] [Accepted: 10/09/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction between anti-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family proteins determines life or death for cancer cells. In this context, BH3-only proteins (such as Bim), members of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins, act as key initiators of apoptosis by activating Bax and Bak through liberating them from anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 members. This then leads to the disruption of mitochondrial outer membrane, and eventually promotes proteolytic cascades for cellular dismantling. We here review the growing evidence of how BH3-only proteins are involved in tumorigenesis and in apoptosis induced by anti-cancer agents in hematologic malignancies. A deeper understanding of the roles of BH3-only proteins in cell death regulation may yield crucial insights for the further development of more effective and rational cell killing strategies. Recent developments in the direct therapeutic manipulation of Bcl-2 proteins using BH3-mimicking agents, such as ABT-737 or GX15-070, for hematologic malignancies are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junya Kuroda
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.
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Qin T, Youssef EM, Jelinek J, Chen R, Yang AS, Garcia-Manero G, Issa JPJ. Effect of cytarabine and decitabine in combination in human leukemic cell lines. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:4225-32. [PMID: 17634552 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-2762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE 1-beta-D-Arabinofuranosylcytosine (cytarabine; ara-C) is the most active agent in myeloid leukemia. 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine (DAC) is a cytosine analogue that inhibits DNA methylation and also has activity in myeloid leukemia. Therefore, we investigated combining these two drugs in human leukemia cell lines in vitro. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We initially examined the effects of ara-C and DAC on human leukemia cell lines HL60, ML-1, RAji, and Jurkat. We measured IC(50) of DAC and ara-C in these cell lines and calculated a combination index of these two drugs given either simultaneously or sequentially. In searching for mechanisms relative to epigenetic regulation for this effect, we examined DNA methylation of LINE and Alu repetitive elements as a surrogate for global genomic DNA methylation. In addition, we sorted Annexin V positive and negative cells and measured differences in LINE methylation between them. RESULTS The combination of DAC and ara-C showed additive induction of cell death in ML-1 and synergistic induction in HL60, Raji, and Jurkat. Sequentially, DAC followed by ara-C was a synergistic combination in all cell lines. Low-dose DAC induced more hypomethylation than high doses of the drug, whereas ara-C had no effects on methylation. The combination of ara-C with DAC either together or DAC followed by ara-C resulted in inhibition of LINE demethylation in HL60. The RIL gene, which is silenced by DNA hypermethylation, was activated by DAC, but the addition of ara-C to DAC reduced RIL gene activation. DAC treatment increased H3 Lys(9) acetylation of Alu elements, whereas ara-C had no effect, and the addition of ara-C to DAC inhibited this effect. Finally, we showed that after DAC exposure, Annexin V positive cells were more hypomethylated than Annexin V negative cells. CONCLUSION The combination of DAC and ara-C showed additive or synergistic effects on cell death in four human leukemia cell lines in vitro, but antagonism in terms of epigenetic effects. One possible explanation for these paradoxical observations is that hypomethylated cells are sensitized to cell killing by ara-C. These data suggest that DAC used in combination with ara-C has clinical potential in the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taichun Qin
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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