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Bruijn LE, van den Akker BEWM, van Rhijn CM, Hamming JF, Lindeman JHN. Extreme Diversity of the Human Vascular Mesenchymal Cell Landscape. J Am Heart Assoc 2020; 9:e017094. [PMID: 33190596 PMCID: PMC7763765 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.120.017094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Human mesenchymal cells are culprit factors in vascular (patho)physiology and are hallmarked by phenotypic and functional heterogeneity. At present, they are subdivided by classic umbrella terms, such as "fibroblasts," "myofibroblasts," "smooth muscle cells," "fibrocytes," "mesangial cells," and "pericytes." However, a discriminative marker-based subclassification has to date not been established. Methods and Results As a first effort toward a classification scheme, a systematic literature search was performed to identify the most commonly used phenotypical and functional protein markers for characterizing and classifying vascular mesenchymal cell subpopulation(s). We next applied immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence to inventory the expression pattern of identified markers on human aorta specimens representing early, intermediate, and end stages of human atherosclerotic disease. Included markers comprise markers for mesenchymal lineage (vimentin, FSP-1 [fibroblast-specific protein-1]/S100A4, cluster of differentiation (CD) 90/thymocyte differentiation antigen 1, and FAP [fibroblast activation protein]), contractile/non-contractile phenotype (α-smooth muscle actin, smooth muscle myosin heavy chain, and nonmuscle myosin heavy chain), and auxiliary contractile markers (h1-Calponin, h-Caldesmon, Desmin, SM22α [smooth muscle protein 22α], non-muscle myosin heavy chain, smooth muscle myosin heavy chain, Smoothelin-B, α-Tropomyosin, and Telokin) or adhesion proteins (Paxillin and Vinculin). Vimentin classified as the most inclusive lineage marker. Subset markers did not separate along classic lines of smooth muscle cell, myofibroblast, or fibroblast, but showed clear temporal and spatial diversity. Strong indications were found for presence of stem cells/Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal cell Transition and fibrocytes in specific aspects of the human atherosclerotic process. Conclusions This systematic evaluation shows a highly diverse and dynamic landscape for the human vascular mesenchymal cell population that is not captured by the classic nomenclature. Our observations stress the need for a consensus multiparameter subclass designation along the lines of the cluster of differentiation classification for leucocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E. Bruijn
- Division of Vascular SurgeryDepartment of SurgeryLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenthe Netherlands
| | | | - Connie M. van Rhijn
- Division of Vascular SurgeryDepartment of SurgeryLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenthe Netherlands
| | - Jaap F. Hamming
- Division of Vascular SurgeryDepartment of SurgeryLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenthe Netherlands
| | - Jan H. N. Lindeman
- Division of Vascular SurgeryDepartment of SurgeryLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenthe Netherlands
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Semina EV, Rubina KA, Shmakova AA, Rysenkova KD, Klimovich PS, Aleksanrushkina NA, Sysoeva VY, Karagyaur MN, Tkachuk VA. Downregulation of uPAR promotes urokinase translocation into the nucleus and epithelial to mesenchymal transition in neuroblastoma. J Cell Physiol 2020; 235:6268-6286. [PMID: 31990070 PMCID: PMC7318179 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.29555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The urokinase system is involved in a variety of physiological processes, such as fibrinolysis, matrix remodeling, wound healing, and regeneration. Upon binding to its cognate receptor urokinase‐type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR), urokinase‐type plasminogen activator (uPA) catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin and the activation of matrix metalloproteases. Apart from this, uPA–uPAR interaction can lead to the activation of transcription factors, mitogen‐activated protein kinase signaling pathways and RTK cascades. Elevated expression of uPA and uPAR is markedly associated with cancer progression and metastasis and correlates with a poor prognosis in clinics. Targeting the urokinase system has proved to be effective in experimental models in vitro and in vivo, however, in clinics the inhibition of the uPA/uPAR system has fallen short of expectations, suggesting that the question of the functional relevance of uPA/uPAR system is far from being moot. Recently, using CRISPR/Cas9 technology, we have shown that uPAR knockout decreases the proliferation of neuroblastoma Neuro2a cells in vitro. In the present study we demonstrate that uPAR expression is essential for maintaining the epithelial phenotype in Neuro2a cells and that uPAR silencing promotes epithelial‐mesenchymal transition (EMT) and increased cell migration. Accordingly, uPAR knockout results in the downregulation of epithelial markers (E‐cadherin, occludin, and claudin‐5) and in the increase of mesenchymal markers (N‐cadherin, α‐smooth muscle actin, and interleukin‐6). In search of the molecular mechanism underlying these changes, we identified uPA as a key component. Two key insights emerged as a result of this work: in the absence of uPAR, uPA is translocated into the nucleus where it is presumably involved in the activation of transcription factors (nuclear factor κB and Snail) resulting in EMT. In uPAR‐expressing cells, uPAR functions as a uPA “trap” that binds uPA on the cell surface and promotes controlled uPA internalization and degradation in lysosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina V Semina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Institute of Experimental Cardiology, Federal State Budgetary Organization National Cardiology Research Center Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Kseniya A Rubina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Morohogenesis and Tissue Reparation, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anna A Shmakova
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Institute of Experimental Cardiology, Federal State Budgetary Organization National Cardiology Research Center Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Karina D Rysenkova
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Institute of Experimental Cardiology, Federal State Budgetary Organization National Cardiology Research Center Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Polina S Klimovich
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Institute of Experimental Cardiology, Federal State Budgetary Organization National Cardiology Research Center Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalya A Aleksanrushkina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Veronika Y Sysoeva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Maxim N Karagyaur
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Vsevolod A Tkachuk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Institute of Experimental Cardiology, Federal State Budgetary Organization National Cardiology Research Center Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
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Tkachuk VA, Parfyonova YV, Plekhanova OS, Stepanova VV, Menshikov MY, Semina EV, Bibilashvili RS, Chazov EI. [Fibrinolytics: from the thrombolysis to the processes of blood vessels growth and remodeling, neurogenesis, carcinogenesis and fibrosis]. TERAPEVT ARKH 2019; 91:4-9. [PMID: 32598807 DOI: 10.26442/00403660.2019.09.000411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
One of the most outstanding scientific achievements in the thrombolysis is the development and administration of fibrinolysin - the first Soviet drug that lyses blood clots. Intracoronary administration of fibrinolysin reduced the mortality of patients with myocardial infarction by almost 20%. For his work in this field Yevgeny Chazov was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1982. Over the next decades, under his leadership, the Cardiology Center established scientific and clinical laboratories that created new generations of drugs based on fibrinolytics for treating patients with myocardial infarction, restoration of blood flow in ischemic tissue, and also studying the mechanisms of remodeling of blood vessels involving the fibrinolysis system. It have been found new mechanisms of regulation of the navigation of blood vessels and nerves growth, tumor growth and its metastasis with the participation of the fibrinolysis system proteins. The review reports the role of the fibrinolysis system in the thrombolysis, blood vessels growth and remodeling, neurogenesis, carcinogenesis and fibrosis. The article is dedicated to the 90th anniversary of academician E.I. Chazov.
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Affiliation(s)
- V A Tkachuk
- National Medical Research Center of Cardiology
| | | | | | | | | | - E V Semina
- National Medical Research Center of Cardiology
| | | | - E I Chazov
- National Medical Research Center of Cardiology
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Urokinase Stimulates Production of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 in Fibroblasts with Involvement of Reactive Oxygen Species. Bull Exp Biol Med 2014; 157:18-21. [DOI: 10.1007/s10517-014-2481-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2012] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Zhang G, Kernan KA, Thomas A, Collins S, Song Y, Li L, Zhu W, Leboeuf RC, Eddy AA. A novel signaling pathway: fibroblast nicotinic receptor alpha1 binds urokinase and promotes renal fibrosis. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:29050-64. [PMID: 19690163 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.010249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha1 (nAChRalpha1) was investigated as a potential fibrogenic molecule in the kidney, given reports that it may be an alternative urokinase (urokinase plasminogen activator; uPA) receptor in addition to the classical receptor uPAR. In a mouse obstructive uropathy model of chronic kidney disease, interstitial fibroblasts were identified as the primary cell type that bears nAChRalpha1 during fibrogenesis. Silencing of the nAChRalpha1 gene led to significantly fewer interstitial alphaSMA(+) myofibroblasts (2.8 times decreased), reduced interstitial cell proliferation (2.6 times decreased), better tubular cell preservation (E-cadherin 14 times increased), and reduced fibrosis severity (24% decrease in total collagen). The myofibroblast-inhibiting effect of nAChRalpha1 silencing in uPA-sufficient mice disappeared in uPA-null mice, suggesting that a uPA-dependent fibroblastic nAChRalpha1 pathway promotes renal fibrosis. To further establish this possible ligand-receptor relationship and to identify downstream signaling pathways, in vitro studies were performed using primary cultures of renal fibroblasts. (35)S-Labeled uPA bound to nAChRalpha1 with a K(d) of 1.6 x 10(-8) m, which was displaced by the specific nAChRalpha1 inhibitor d-tubocurarine in a dose-dependent manner. Pre-exposure of uPA to the fibroblasts inhibited [(3)H]nicotine binding. The uPA binding induced a cellular calcium influx and an inward membrane current that was entirely prevented by d-tubocurarine preincubation or nAChRalpha1 silencing. By mass spectrometry phosphoproteome analyses, uPA stimulation phosphorylated nAChRalpha1 and a complex of signaling proteins, including calcium-binding proteins, cytoskeletal proteins, and a nucleoprotein. This signaling pathway appears to regulate the expression of a group of genes that transform renal fibroblasts into more active myofibroblasts characterized by enhanced proliferation and contractility. This new fibrosis-promoting pathway may also be relevant to disorders that extend beyond chronic kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoqiang Zhang
- Division of Nephrology, Immunology, Seattle Children's Hospital Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA.
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Tkachuk VA, Plekhanova OS, Parfyonova YV. Regulation of arterial remodeling and angiogenesis by urokinase-type plasminogen activatorThis article is one of a selection of papers from the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Translational Knowledge for Heart Health (published in part 2 of a 2-part Special Issue). Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2009; 87:231-51. [DOI: 10.1139/y08-113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A wide variety of disorders are associated with an imbalance in the plasminogen activator system, including inflammatory diseases, atherosclerosis, intimal hyperplasia, the response mechanism to vascular injury, and restenosis. Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) is a multifunctional protein that in addition to its fibrinolytic and matrix degradation capabilities also affects growth factor bioavailability, cytokine modulation, receptor shedding, cell migration and proliferation, phenotypic modulation, protein expression, and cascade activation of proteases, inhibitors, receptors, and modulators. uPA is the crucial protein for neointimal growth and vascular remodeling. Moreover, it was recently shown to be implicated in the stimulation of angiogenesis, which makes it a promising multipurpose therapeutic target. This review is focused on the mechanisms by which uPA can regulate arterial remodeling, angiogenesis, and cell migration and proliferation after arterial injury and the means by which it modulates gene expression in vascular cells. The role of domain specificity of urokinase in these processes is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vsevolod A. Tkachuk
- Cardiology Research Centre, Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Moscow 121552, Russia
- Medical School, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga S. Plekhanova
- Cardiology Research Centre, Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Moscow 121552, Russia
- Medical School, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Yelena V. Parfyonova
- Cardiology Research Centre, Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Moscow 121552, Russia
- Medical School, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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Fregnani ER, Sobral LM, Alves FA, Soares FA, Kowalski LP, Coletta RD. Presence of Myofibroblasts and Expression of Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in Ameloblastomas Correlate with Rupture of the Osseous Cortical. Pathol Oncol Res 2008; 15:231-40. [DOI: 10.1007/s12253-008-9110-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2008] [Accepted: 10/07/2008] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Stepanova V, Lebedeva T, Kuo A, Yarovoi S, Tkachuk S, Zaitsev S, Bdeir K, Dumler I, Marks MS, Parfyonova Y, Tkachuk VA, Higazi AAR, Cines DB. Nuclear translocation of urokinase-type plasminogen activator. Blood 2008; 112:100-10. [PMID: 18337556 PMCID: PMC2435680 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-07-104455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2007] [Accepted: 02/01/2008] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) participates in diverse (patho)physiological processes through intracellular signaling events that affect cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation, although the mechanisms by which these occur are only partially understood. Here we report that upon cell binding and internalization, single-chain uPA (scuPA) translocates to the nucleus within minutes. Nuclear translocation does not involve proteolytic activation or degradation of scuPA. Neither the urokinase receptor (uPAR) nor the low-density lipoprotein-related receptor (LRP) is required for nuclear targeting. Rather, translocation involves the binding of scuPA to the nucleocytoplasmic shuttle protein nucleolin through a region containing the kringle domain. RNA interference and mutational analysis demonstrate that nucleolin is required for the nuclear transport of scuPA. Furthermore, nucleolin is required for the induction smooth muscle alpha-actin (alpha-SMA) by scuPA. These data reveal a novel pathway by which uPA is rapidly translocated to the nucleus where it might participate in regulating gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Stepanova
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 19104, USA.
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Madhyastha HK, Radha KS, Nakajima Y, Omura S, Maruyama M. uPA dependent and independent mechanisms of wound healing by C-phycocyanin. J Cell Mol Med 2008; 12:2691-703. [PMID: 18266963 PMCID: PMC3828884 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00272.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Wound repair requires both recruitment and well co-ordinated actions of many cell types including inflammatory cells, endothelial cells, epithelial cells and importantly fibroblast cells. Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) system plays a vital role in wound healing phenomenon. We have previously demonstrated that C-phycocyanin (C-pc), a biliprotein from blue-green algae, transcriptionally regulates uPA through cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) pathway. To date, a role for C-pc in wound-healing scenario is not elucidated. This study was designed to examine the wound-healing property of C-pc in relation to fibroblast proliferation and migration. C-pc increased fibroblast proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. It also enhanced G1 phase of cell cycle and increased the expressions of cyclin-dependent kinases 1 and 2, which facilitate cell cycle progression, in a uPA-independent manner. In vitro wound healing and migration assays revealed the pro-migratory properties of C-pc. Short-interference RNA studies demonstrated that uPA was necessary for C-pc-induced fibroblast migration. C-pc also significantly elevated the expressions of chemokines (MDC, RANTES, Eotaxin, GRO α, ENA78 and TARC) and Rho-GTPases (Cdc 42 and Rac 1) in a uPA-dependent manner. Pre-treatment of C-pc-stimulated cells with pharmacological inhibitor of PI-3K (LY294002) annulled the expression of GTPases implying that Rac 1 and Cdc 42 were induced through PI-3K pathway. C-pc-induced cellular migration towards wounded area was also negatively affected by PI-3K inhibition. In vivo wound-healing experiments in mice validated our finding that C-pc accelerates wound healing. Our data provides conclusive evidence of a novel therapeutic usage for C-pc as a wound-healing agent. C-pc is a food and drug administration (FDA)-approved health supplement. We believe this compound can also be beneficial in healing of internal wounds, such as ulcers.
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Affiliation(s)
- H K Madhyastha
- Department of Applied Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
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House SJ, Singer HA. CaMKII-delta isoform regulation of neointima formation after vascular injury. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007; 28:441-7. [PMID: 18096823 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.107.156810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to test the function of the calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II delta2 isoform (CaMKIIdelta2) in regulating vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cell proliferation and migration in response to vascular injury. METHODS AND RESULTS CaMKII isoform content was assessed in rat carotid arteries after balloon angioplasty-induced injury by Western blotting with isoform specific antibodies. Within 3 days after injury, a significant increase in CaMKIIdelta2 and decrease in CaMKIIgamma isoform content was observed in both medial smooth muscle and adventitial fibroblasts. Neointimal VSM cells expressed primarily the delta2 isoform. Incubation of the injured vessel with adenovirus encoding siRNA targeting CaMKIIdelta isoforms prevented upregulation of the delta2 isoform in the media and adventitia; inhibited cell proliferation assessed by PCNA expression in both layers and markedly inhibited neointima formation and adventitial thickening. CONCLUSIONS CaMKIIdelta2 is specifically induced in VSM and adventitial fibroblasts during the response of an artery to injury and is a positive regulator of proliferation and migration in the vessel wall contributing to neointima formation and vascular remodeling. This provides a potential mechanism for Ca2+-dependent regulation of VSM and myofibroblast proliferation and migration in response to vascular injury or disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne J House
- Center for Cardiovascular Sciences (MC8), Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208-3479, USA
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Jin X, Ge X, Zhu DL, Yan C, Chu YF, Chen WD, Liu J, Gao PJ. Expression and function of vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (Flt-1 and Flk-1) in vascular adventitial fibroblasts. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2007; 43:292-300. [PMID: 17651752 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2007.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2007] [Revised: 05/15/2007] [Accepted: 06/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs) are previously considered to exist exclusively in endothelial cells. However, little is known if the receptors are expressed in other non-endothelial cells. In this study, we measured activation of two VEGFRs, Flk-1 and Flt-1, and their biological functions in cultured adventitial fibroblasts and injured rat carotid injury arteries induced by balloon angioplasty. Our results indicated that Flt-1, but not Flk-1, existed in adventitial fibroblasts. Angiotensin II increased Flt-1 protein expression in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Adventitial fibroblast migration stimulated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PIGF) required Flt-1 expression. The Flt-1-induced adventitial fibroblast migration was blocked by anti-Flt-1 neutralizing antibody and soluble VEGFR1 protein (sFlt-1). However, Flt-1 activation did not enhance cell proliferation. In addition, Flt-1 expression was significantly increased in the neointima and adventitia in injured rat carotid arteries. We concluded that functional expression of Flt-1 in adventitial fibroblasts might be an important mediator in the pathogenesis of vascular remodeling after arterial injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Jin
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology, Institute of Health Science Center, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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Maiellaro K, Taylor WR. The role of the adventitia in vascular inflammation. Cardiovasc Res 2007; 75:640-8. [PMID: 17662969 PMCID: PMC3263364 DOI: 10.1016/j.cardiores.2007.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2007] [Revised: 06/19/2007] [Accepted: 06/21/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional concepts of vascular inflammation are considered "inside-out" responses centered on the monocyte adhesion and lipid oxidation hypotheses. These mechanisms likely operate in concert, holding the central tenet that the inflammatory response is initiated at the luminal surface. However, growing evidence supports a new paradigm of an "outside-in" hypothesis, in which vascular inflammation is initiated in the adventitia and progresses inward toward the intima. Hallmarks of the outside-in hypothesis include population of the adventitia with exogenous cell types, including monocytes, macrophages, and lymphocytes, the phenotypic switch of adventitial fibroblasts into migratory myofibroblasts, and increased vasa vasorum neovascularization. The resident and migrating cells deposit collagen and matrix components, respond to and upregulate inflammatory chemokines and/or antigens, and regulate the local redox state of the adventitia. B cells and T cells generate local humoral immune responses against local antigen presentation by foam cells and antigen presenting cells. These events result in increased local expression of cytokines and growth factors, evoking an inflammatory response that propagates inward toward the intima. Ultimately, it appears that the basic mechanisms of cellular activation and migration in vascular inflammation are highly conserved across a variety of cardiovascular disease states and that major inflammatory events begin in the adventitia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Maiellaro
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, GA, USA.
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